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Topic Review
Spinophorosaurus
Spinophorosaurus is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived in what is now Niger during the Middle Jurassic period. The first two specimens were excavated in the 2000s by German and Spanish teams under difficult conditions. The skeletons were brought to Europe and digitally replicated, making Spinophorosaurus the first sauropod to have its skeleton 3D printed, and were to be returned to Niger in the future. Together, the two specimens represented most of the skeleton of the genus, and one of the most completely known basal sauropods of its time and place. The first skeleton was made the holotype specimen of the new genus and species Spinophorosaurus nigerensis in 2009; the generic name ("spine-bearing lizard") refers to what was initially thought to be spiked osteoderms, and the specific name (Niger and -ensis) refers to where it was found. A juvenile sauropod from the same area was later assigned to the genus. The subadult holotype specimen is estimated to have been around 13 m (43 ft) in length, whereas the paratype was about 14 m (46 ft) long. The shoulder height reached by these individuals was estimated at around 4 m (13 ft), and the weight at about 7 metric tons (7.7 short tons). The braincase was short, deep, and broad, and the neuroanatomy was in some ways intermediate between that of basal sauropodomorphs and the more derived neosauropods. The teeth were spatulate (spoon shaped) and had large spaced denticles at the top of the crown, an ancestral feature in sauropods. The neck of Spinophorosaurus is one of the most completely known among sauropods, containing 13 vertebrae. The dorsal vertebrae had multiple small air-filled internal chambers, a feature typical of later more-derived sauropods. The tail was powered by strong musculature and had a rear section that was rather rigid due to long and overlapping chevron bones. Bones originally thought to be osteoderms bearing spikes placed on the tail tip were later suggested to be clavicles. Spinophorosaurus has been classified as either a very basal sauropod, or inside Eusauropoda, a more derived group. The anatomy, age, and location of specimens indicate that important developments in sauropod evolution may have occurred in North Africa, possibly controlled by climatic zones and plant biogeography. Features of the vestibular apparatus suggest that vision and coordinated eye, head, and neck movements were important in Spinophorosaurus. 3D models of the skeleton have been used to test its range of motion. One study suggests it may have been a high browser, and another examined possible mating postures. Sutures between the neural arches with the centra of the vertebrae were more complex in the front part of the trunk of Spinophorosaurus, since stresses were probably greatest in that region. Spinophorosaurus is known from the Irhazer Shale, a geological formation thought to be Middle Jurassic in age. It was formed by deposits from rivers and lakes in a great river-valley system.
  • 1.9K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Theosophy (Boehmian)
Theosophy, also known as Christian theosophy and Boehmian theosophy, refers to a range of positions within Christianity which focus on the attainment of direct, unmediated knowledge of the nature of divinity and the origin and purpose of the universe. They have been characterized as mystical and occultist philosophies. Theosophy is considered part of Western esotericism, which believes that hidden knowledge or wisdom from the ancient past offers a path to enlightenment and salvation. The foundation of Christian theosophy is usually attributed to the German philosopher Jakob Böhme. In 1875, the term "theosophy" was adopted and revived by the Theosophical Society, a largely unrelated esoteric organisation which spawned a religious movement also called Theosophy. In the twentieth century, theosophy became the object of study for various scholars of Western esotericism.
  • 1.9K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Dynamics of Glucose Transport in Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is the best-known model for the biotechnological production of many biotechnological products, including housekeeping and heterologous primary and secondary metabolites and recombinant proteins, and is an efficient biofactory model to produce biofuels to nanomaterials. Glucose is the primary substrate used as the carbon source for laboratory and industrial cultivation of E. coli for production purposes. Efficient growth and associated production and yield of desired products depend on the efficient sugar transport capabilities, sugar catabolism through the central carbon catabolism, and the efficient carbon flux through specific biosynthetic pathways. The genome of E. coli MG1655 is 4,641,642 bp, corresponding to 4702 genes encoding 4328 proteins. The EcoCyc database describes 532 transport reactions, 480 transporters, and 97 proteins involved in sugar transport. Nevertheless, due to the high number of sugar transporters, E. coli uses preferentially few systems to grow in glucose as the sole carbon source. E. coli nonspecifically transports glucose from the extracellular medium into the periplasmic space through the outer membrane porins. Once in periplasmic space, glucose is transported into the cytoplasm by several systems, including the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system (PTS), the ATP-dependent cassette (ABC) transporters, and the major facilitator (MFS) superfamily proton symporters.
  • 1.9K
  • 27 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors for N-Terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide Detection
N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), a prominent cardiac biomarker, has gained significant recognition for its role in the diagnosis and prognosis of heart failure (HF). This biomarker is synthesized as a response to ventricular volume expansion and pressure overload, conditions often indicative of cardiac stress and dysfunction. The detection of NT-ProBNP, a crucial biomarker for cardiovascular diseases, has been significantly enhanced by the integration of nanomaterials into biosensor designs. These advancements leverage the unique properties of nanomaterials to achieve high sensitivity and specificity in NT-ProBNP detection. 
  • 1.9K
  • 29 Jan 2024
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Sport During Franco’s Technocracy: From Propaganda to Development
Sport in Spain during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975) underwent significant evolution across three distinct political phases: autarky, the technocratic stage, and late Francoism. Each of these periods was characterized by different approaches and uses of sport within the regime’s political structure. In the early years, sport was primarily employed as a tool for propaganda and social control, aligning with the authoritarian values of the state. Subsequently, with the rise of technocrats in the 1960s, reforms were implemented to promote the structural development of the sports system, fostering its modernization and the creation of specialized institutions. Finally, in the late Francoist period, sport became an instrument for international projection, as Spain increased its participation in international competitions and hosted sporting events. This entry analyzes the primary governmental initiatives for the organization and promotion of sport during the Franco regime, with particular attention to the administrative roles played by figures such as José Antonio Elola-Olaso and Juan Antonio Samaranch in the evolving structure of the Spanish sports system. Through an analysis based on documentary sources, it provides a comprehensive overview of Francoist sports policies, their objectives, and their impact on Spanish society. In this regard, sport under Franco’s rule was not only a means of political control but also laid the foundation for the later professionalization and globalization of Spanish sport.
  • 1.9K
  • 06 Jun 2025
Topic Review
Lipopeptide and Protein-Containing Biosurfactants
Biosurfactants are amphipathic molecules capable of lowering interfacial and superficial tensions. Produced by living organisms, these compounds act the same as chemical surfactants but with a series of improvements, the most notable being biodegradability. Biosurfactants have a wide diversity of categories. Within these, lipopeptides are some of the more abundant and widely known.
  • 1.9K
  • 17 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Usutu virus in Europe
Usutu virus (USUV) is an emerging arbovirus isolated in 1959 (Usutu River, Swaziland). Previously restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, the virus was introduced in Europe in 1996. While USUV has received little attention in Africa, the virus emergence has prompted numerous studies with robust epidemiological surveillance programs in Europe. Epizootics and genetic diversity of USUV in different bird species as well as detection of the virus in mosquitoes suggest repeated USUV introductions into Europe with endemization in some countries. The zoonotic potential of USUV has been reported in a growing number of human cases. Clinical cases of neuroinvasive disease and USUV fever, as well as seroconversion in blood donors were reported in Europe since 2009. Since spreading trends of USUV are likely to continue, continuous multidisciplinary interventions ('One Health' concept) should be conducted for monitoring and prevention of this emerging arboviral infection.
  • 1.9K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Resistive Barrier Discharge
Plasma generated by the resistive barrier discharge has been used to efficiently inactivate pathogenic microorganisms and to destroy cancer cells. These biomedical applications of low temperature plasma are of great interest because in recent times bacteria developed increased resistance to antibiotics and because present cancer therapies often are accompanied by serious side effects. Low temperature plasma, such the one generated by the resistive barrier discharge, is a technology that can help overcome these healthcare challenges.
  • 1.9K
  • 08 Feb 2021
Topic Review
MitoQ
Mitoquinone (MitoQ) is a mitochondrial reactive oxygen species scavenger that is characterized by high bioavailability. Prior studies have demonstrated its neuroprotective potential. Indeed, the release of reactive oxygen species due to damage to mitochondrial components plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases.
  • 1.9K
  • 11 May 2021
Topic Review
Advances Colorimetric Detection of Arsenic
Nowadays, arsenic (III) contamination of drinking water is a global issue. Laboratory and instrument-based techniques are typically used to detect arsenic in water, with an accuracy of 1 ppb. However, such detection methods require a laboratory-based environment, skilled labor, and additional costs for setup. As a result, several metal-based nanoparticles have been studied to prepare a cost-effective and straightforward detector for arsenic (III) ions. Among the developed strategies, colorimetric detection is one of the simplest methods to detect arsenic (III) in water. Several portable digital detection technologies make nanoparticle-based colorimetric detectors useful for on-site arsenic detection.
  • 1.9K
  • 30 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Ways of Light Energy Utilization in C4 Photosynthesis
Most C4 plants that naturally occur in tropical or subtropical climates, in high light environments, had to evolve a series of adaptations of photosynthesis that allowed them to grow under these conditions. Some mechanisms that function under changing light conditions, particularly in high light intensity, are universal and are also found in C3 plants. However, some are modified in C4 plants to provide more efficient CO2 assimilation. The close relationship between the light phase of photosynthesis and the enzymatic reactions in chloroplasts, and the associated demand for ATP and NADPH, results that in C4 plants the linear and cyclic electron transport operate in a different ratio in the chloroplasts of mesophyll (M) and bundle sheath (BS) cells. In addition, differences in the intensity of light reaching M and BS chloroplasts and in the thylakoid structure (granal and agranal) will affect the processes of the redistribution of excitation energy between photosystems and the dissipation of its excess. Therefore, it can be assumed that, in the M chloroplasts, because of increased incoming light energy, the mechanisms related to the dissipation of excess energy must function better than in BS chloroplasts to prevent photosystems from photoinhibition and, in consequence, from a decrease in ATP and NADPH. On the other hand, BS chloroplasts, which receive less light energy, must have better functioning mechanisms that allow for its efficient use.
  • 1.9K
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
FDA
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for regulating food, dietary supplements, drugs, biological medical products, blood products, medical devices, radiation-emitting devices, veterinary products, and cosmetics in the United States.
  • 1.9K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
BSAVE (Bitmap Format)
A BSAVE Image (aka "BSAVED Image") as it is referenced in a graphics program is an image file format created usually by saving raw video memory to disk (sometimes but not always in a BASIC program using the BSAVE command). The BASIC BSAVE command is a general command meant for dumping ranges of memory addresses to disk. Data could be recalled using the counterpart BLOAD command. Some platforms provided a BRUN command that would immediately attempt to execute the loaded RAM image as a program. BSAVE was in general use as a file format when the IBM PC was introduced. It was also in general use on the Apple II in the same time period. Although the commands were available on the Commodore PET line, they were removed from the later (and more popular) Commodore 64 and VIC-20 computers. In 1985 the Commodore 128 was released with Commodore BASIC version 7.0 which restored the BSAVE and BLOAD commands.
  • 1.9K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Discipline (Academia)
An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. It includes language, art and cultural studies and other scientific disciplines. It incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, research areas, and facilities that are strongly associated with a given scholastic subject area or college department. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines, e.g. physics, chemistry, and biology. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists. While academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused practices, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple academic disciplines, therefore addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study. For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in language, specified concepts or methodology. Some researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2 or "post-academic science", which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.
  • 1.9K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Attenuated Vaccine
An attenuated vaccine (or a live attenuated vaccine, LAV) is a vaccine created by reducing the virulence of a pathogen, but still keeping it viable (or "live"). Attenuation takes an infectious agent and alters it so that it becomes harmless or less virulent. These vaccines contrast to those produced by "killing" the virus (inactivated vaccine). Attenuated vaccines stimulate a strong and effective immune response that is long-lasting. In comparison to inactivated vaccines, attenuated vaccines produce a stronger and more durable immune response with a quick immunity onset. Attenuated vaccines function by encouraging the body to create antibodies and memory immune cells in response to the specific pathogen which the vaccine protects against. Common examples of live attenuated vaccines are measles, mumps, rubella, yellow fever, and some influenza vaccines.
  • 1.9K
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Equinox (Celestial Coordinates)
In astronomy, an equinox is either of two places on the celestial sphere at which the ecliptic intersects the celestial equator. Although there are two intersections of the ecliptic with the celestial equator, by convention, the equinox associated with the Sun's ascending node is used as the origin of celestial coordinate systems and referred to simply as "the equinox". In contrast to the common usage of spring/vernal and autumnal equinoxes, the celestial coordinate system equinox is a direction in space rather than a moment in time. In a cycle of about 25,800 years, the equinox moves westward with respect to the celestial sphere because of perturbing forces; therefore, in order to define a coordinate system, it is necessary to specify the date for which the equinox is chosen. This date should not be confused with the epoch. Astronomical objects show real movements such as orbital and proper motions, and the epoch defines the date for which the position of an object applies. Therefore, a complete specification of the coordinates for an astronomical object requires both the date of the equinox and of the epoch. The currently used standard equinox and epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1, 2000 at 12:00 TT. The prefix "J" indicates that it is a Julian epoch. The previous standard equinox and epoch was B1950.0, with the prefix "B" indicating it was a Besselian epoch. Before 1984 Besselian equinoxes and epochs were used. Since that time Julian equinoxes and epochs have been used.
  • 1.9K
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Human Carcinogenicity of Ethylenedithiocarbamate Fungicides
In January 2021, the European Union ended the license of Mancozeb, the bestselling ethylenedithiocarbamate (EBDC) fungicide, because of some properties typical of human carcinogens. This decision contrasts the IARC classification of EBDC fungicides (Group 3, not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity). 
  • 1.9K
  • 15 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Thermal Load and Heat Transfer in Dental Implants
Heat is a kinetic process whereby energy flows from between two systems, hot-to-cold objects. In oro-dental implantology, conductive heat transfer/(or thermal stress) is a complex physical phenomenon to analyze and consider in treatment planning. Hence, ample research has attempted to measure heat-production to avoid over-heating during bone-cutting and drilling for titanium (Ti) implant-site preparation and insertion, thereby preventing/minimizing early (as well as delayed) implant-related complications and failure. The goal is two-fold: (A) the standard heat equation is proposed to be solved, modifying the imposed boundary conditions without any additional source term, and on the other hand, (B) a gap is filled in the literature via obtaining an exact analytical solution of a somewhat simplified problem, which nevertheless, encapsulates the physics and reproduces the results already found in previous works via numerical analyses. In addition, for the first time, the intrinsic time is introduced and involved herein, a “proper” time that characterizes the geometry of the dental implant fixture and overall system, and how the interplay between that time and the exposure time influences temperature changes, and subsequent implant survival, are shown. Thus, this work aims to complement the overall clinical diagnostic and treatment plan for enhanced biological one–implant interface and mechanical implant stability and success rates, whether for immediate or delayed implant loading strategies.
  • 1.9K
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
B Cell Lymphoma 2 and Cancer Therapy
Bcl-2 is an anti-apoptotic protein that is associated with several cancer progression. Bcl-2 was the first protein to be documented among the Bcl-2 family proteins. It was the first gene exhibited to promote prolonged cell survival and growth rather than enhanced proliferation, which revealed that inhibition of cell death is vital in tumorigenesis.
  • 1.9K
  • 12 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Chemical Control Techniques for Vegetables
Diseases and pests are important factors in vegetable cultivation; they not only affect the growth and appearance of vegetables but also affect the yield and quality. The disease and pest control of vegetables is dominated by chemical sprays, for now. As a result, the excessive use of pesticides has been a crucial factor of pesticides’ non-point source pollution, and it is also the main cause of excessive pesticide residues in vegetables. 
  • 1.9K
  • 23 Feb 2022
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