Carrageenan, a polysaccharide derived from red seaweeds, is commonly used to induce inflammation in animal models for studying inflammatory diseases. Its pro-inflammatory effects involve several key mechanisms: Activation of the Immune System: Carrageenan stimulates local immune cells, particularly macrophages, leading to an increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Disruption of Epithelial Barrier: It causes damage to the intestinal epithelial barrier, increasing intestinal permeability and facilitating the entry of pathogens and toxins, which exacerbates inflammation. Production of Inflammatory Mediators: Carrageenan enhances the production of inflammatory mediators like prostaglandins and leukotrienes, contributing to inflammation and pain. Modulation of Signaling Pathways: It affects important signaling pathways, including NF-κB and MAPK, which are crucial in regulating the inflammatory response. These mechanisms make carrageenan a valuable tool for studying inflammatory processes and evaluating the efficacy of anti-inflammatory treatments in animal models.

Nanoparticles are minuscule particles with dimensions typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. Their small size grants them unique physical and chemical properties, making them indispensable in various fields. In medicine, drug delivery systems employ nanoparticles to target specific cells, reducing side effects. In electronics, nanoparticles enhance the performance of semiconductors and catalytic materials. In environmental science, they aid in water purification and pollution control. Nanoparticles are also vital in materials science, as they can reinforce composites, enhancing strength and durability. Moreover, their optical properties enable innovative applications in imaging and sensors. However, the exceptional reactivity and potential toxicity of some nanoparticles raise concerns for safety and environmental impact. Their development demands a balance between harnessing their capabilities and understanding their potential risks, which is a crucial aspect of ongoing research in nanotechnology [1].

Plant cells, unlike animal cells, have rigid cell walls made of cellulose, providing support and protection. They contain a nucleus containing DNA, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, a central vacuole for storage and turgor pressure, mitochondria for energy production, and various organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus for cellular processes. Plasmodesmata facilitate communication between cells.