Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Encyclopedia Insights: Where Knowledge Meets the World
Type:
All Announcement Blog
Most Viewed Latest
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
The Science of Olive Micropropagation: How Explant Position and Culture Density Shape Growth
Olive trees (Olea europaea) are more than just Mediterranean icons—they provide valuable oil, thrive under changing climates, and support both culture and economy. Their wild relatives, like Oleaster (Olea sylvestris), offer even richer nutritional value and play a key role in biodiversity, reforestation, and breeding stress-resistant varieties. Yet, growing olives—especially wild types—isn’t easy. Traditional propagation is slow and labor-intensive, while in vitro micropropagation, though faster, faces its own hurdles: apical dominance, where the main shoot outcompetes side shoots, and culture heterogeneity, which creates uneven plant growth. A recent study published in MDPI Plants, “Exploring the Interplay of Explant Origin and Culture Density on Olive Micropropagation Efficiency", tackled these challenges. The researchers examined how the source of plant tissue (topophysis) and the density of explants in culture affect both growth and hormone distribution in vitro. 1. Challenges in Olive Micropropagation One of the primary obstacles in olive micropropagation is apical dominance, a physiological phenomenon in which the main shoot inhibits the growth of lateral buds, resulting in uneven shoot proliferation. Strong apical dominance reduces the multiplication factor in vitro and contributes to variability within cultures. Another limiting factor is culture heterogeneity, where differences in growth and development arise among plantlets within the same vessel, often affecting the uniformity and quality of the propagated material. While apical meristem excision has been attempted to reduce apical dominance, it does not consistently improve shoot proliferation. Alternatively, the exogenous application of cytokinins (CKs)—plant hormones that regulate cell division and shoot initiation—has shown promise in stimulating axillary bud growth even in the presence of an intact apex. Various cytokinins, including zeatin (Z), benzyladenine (BA), kinetin (Kn), thidiazuron (TDZ), and meta-topolin (mT), have been tested, with zeatin proving particularly effective across diverse olive cultivars. CK-like substances such as dikegulac have also been explored for their potential to modulate shoot proliferation. Cytokinins play a central role in in vitro propagation. As adenine derivatives, they are classified into isoprenoid and aromatic types, regulating shoot meristem initiation, proliferation, apical dominance, senescence, rooting, and callus formation. Their activity depends on chemical form: free bases are active, ribosylation converts them into transportable but less active forms, O-glucosylation provides reversible deactivation, and N-glucosylation results in irreversible inactivation. Cytokinin levels are influenced by both environmental and endogenous factors, including light, nutrient availability, and stress conditions. In olive micropropagation, cytokinins in the culture medium are critical, alongside mineral nutrients, for inducing shoot proliferation and maintaining healthy growth. 2. Explant Origin (Topophysis) and Its Role Another critical factor affecting olive micropropagation is topophysis, which refers to the effect of the original tissue’s position on subsequent growth and development. First described by Molisch in 1915 and later elaborated by Robbins in 1964, topophysis has traditionally been studied regarding rooting capacity in vivo, while its influence in vitro has been less explored. In woody species like olives, the positional effect of explants can significantly affect growth patterns, shoot proliferation, and cytokinin responsiveness. Understanding and manipulating topophysis is therefore key to optimizing in vitro propagation protocols. 3. Study Design and Hypothesis This study aimed to examine the combined effects of explant origin and culture density on olive micropropagation efficiency. The authors hypothesized that selecting explants from specific positions and adjusting culture density would influence cytokinin metabolism and spatial distribution, ultimately enhancing shoot proliferation and mitigating the inhibitory effects of apical dominance. To test this hypothesis, explants were collected from two positions on the olive shoot: the apical section, representing the very tip of the shoot, and the middle section. Explants were cultured at three densities: 18, 24, and 30 explants per vessel. Growth parameters, including shoot number, node number, internode length, and callus weight, were measured after 12 weeks. In parallel, a detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of aromatic and isoprenoid cytokinins in leaves and stems was conducted to assess the hormonal dynamics underlying growth responses. 4. Key Morphological Findings The results demonstrated that both explant origin and culture density significantly influenced growth outcomes: Shoot Proliferation and Node Production: Middle-section explants consistently exhibited superior shoot proliferation and a higher number of nodes compared to apical explants. This effect was most pronounced at higher culture densities. Although apical-section explants also showed improved growth at increased densities, the magnitude was smaller, indicating a residual effect of apical dominance. Callus Formation: Callus weight increased with culture density for both explant types, reflecting enhanced regenerative capacity under crowded conditions. Internode Length: Across explant origins and culture densities, internode length remained relatively stable, suggesting that node spacing is less sensitive to explant position and density than shoot number or callus formation. These findings highlight the importance of topophysis and culture density as practical levers for optimizing micropropagation efficiency. Selecting middle-section explants and growing them at higher densities allows researchers to maximize shoot multiplication and generate more homogeneous cultures. 5. Hormonal Insights Cytokinin analysis revealed density-dependent and position-specific patterns in hormone distribution: Aromatic Cytokinins: In apical-section explants, aromatic free bases in leaves migrated toward shoot apices at higher culture densities. This migration was less pronounced in middle-section explants, potentially explaining their more uniform shoot proliferation. Isoprenoid Cytokinins: Free bases and O-glucosides generally increased toward basal nodes, indicating complex spatial regulation. These patterns suggest that cytokinins contribute to mitigating apical dominance when explants are strategically selected and cultured at higher densities. By linking hormone distribution to observed growth parameters, the study provides mechanistic insights into how explant origin and culture density interact to regulate shoot proliferation and culture uniformity. 6. Implications and Applications This research carries both practical and scientific implications: Commercial Production: Olive growers can improve the efficiency and consistency of in vitro propagation by selecting middle-section explants and optimizing culture density, thereby accelerating the production of high-quality plantlets to meet the growing global demand for olive oil. Conservation and Breeding: Wild olives such as Oleaster serve as reservoirs of genetic diversity. Efficient micropropagation ensures germplasm preservation, supporting breeding programs aimed at enhancing stress tolerance and facilitating reforestation efforts. Scientific Understanding: The study provides a detailed analysis of cytokinin distribution relative to explant origin and culture density, deepening understanding of hormonal regulation in woody plant micropropagation. 7. Conclusion Olive micropropagation requires a careful balance of biology and technique. Apical dominance and culture heterogeneity have long limited the efficiency of in vitro propagation. This study demonstrates that manipulating explant origin and culture density can effectively overcome these constraints. Middle-section explants, when cultured at higher densities, show the most promising outcomes, with increased shoot proliferation, node production, and more uniform culture characteristics. Hormonal analysis further elucidates the mechanisms behind these responses, highlighting the role of cytokinins in mitigating apical dominance and enhancing growth. Overall, these findings provide a clear, practical roadmap for improving olive micropropagation protocols. By optimizing tissue selection and culture conditions, researchers and growers can achieve more efficient, cost-effective production of high-quality olive plantlets, supporting both commercial agriculture and the conservation of valuable olive genetic resources. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Explant Origin Culture Density Effects on Olive Micropropagation".
Blog 09 Mar 2026
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
How Ribosomal Gene Deficiency and Calorie Restriction Influence Yeast Biosynthetic Capacity
When it comes to cellular biology, we often think of cells as highly efficient factories, constantly producing proteins to fuel growth and division. But what happens when we dial down the production? Can a cell continue to thrive with reduced biosynthetic activity? This question lies at the heart of a recent study published in MDPI Cells, where researchers dive deep into how calorie restriction (CR) and the reduction of biosynthetic activity impact cell growth, size, and the ability to proliferate in yeast. The study, titled "Interplay Between Ribosomal Gene Deficiency and Calorie Restriction in Shaping Yeast Biosynthetic Capacity" reveals that reducing biosynthesis—particularly protein synthesis—does not necessarily hinder a cell’s efficiency. In fact, the study uncovers that lowering protein production can actually enhance cellular function and lifespan, but only if biosynthetic activity doesn’t fall below a certain threshold. To investigate this, the researchers used two strategies to reduce biosynthesis in yeast: calorie restriction (CR) and gene deletions of ribosomal proteins (RPL20A, RPL20B, and RPS6B), which are key components of the ribosome involved in protein synthesis. 1. Reducing Biosynthesis: The Effect on Cell Growth and Size At the core of this study is the role of biosynthesis, especially protein synthesis, in cell growth, division, and overall health. Protein synthesis is one of the most energy-consuming processes in a cell, and previous research has shown that reducing protein synthesis can extend lifespan and improve cellular efficiency. To reduce biosynthetic activity, the researchers used two main methods: Gene Deletions: By deleting specific ribosomal proteins, such as RPL20A, RPL20B, and RPS6B, the researchers reduced the cells' biosynthetic capacity. These deletions led to lower protein synthesis and a reduced ability to produce new proteins. Calorie Restriction (CR): By limiting the availability of nutrients, CR also reduces biosynthetic activity, slowing down cellular growth. The results showed that yeast strains with reduced biosynthetic activity—whether due to gene deletions or calorie restriction—experienced slower growth rates, smaller cell sizes, and a prolonged cell cycle. Most notably, the effects were especially prominent in the G1 phase, suggesting that a reduction in biosynthesis mainly affects the early stages of the cell cycle. However, in yeast strains with a low biosynthetic capacity due to gene deletions (e.g., Δrpl20a), calorie restriction did not lead to any further significant reductions in growth or biosynthetic activity. This finding strongly suggests that there is a minimum biosynthetic threshold required to maintain cellular fitness. Below this threshold, further reductions in biosynthesis have little to no effect on growth, underscoring the importance of maintaining a baseline level of biosynthetic activity for proper cell function. 2. The Impact of Calorie Restriction: Thresholds and Cellular Efficiency Calorie restriction is well-known for extending lifespan in various organisms, but its effects on cellular efficiency are more nuanced than previously thought. The study revealed that in yeast strains with already reduced biosynthetic activity—such as those with ribosomal protein gene deletions—calorie restriction did not further limit cell growth or biosynthetic activity. This suggests that the cells’ biosynthetic threshold plays a critical role in the response to calorie restriction. When biosynthetic activity falls below this threshold, further reductions do not result in additional benefits. Essentially, the study indicates that there is a limit to how much biosynthesis can be reduced before it starts impairing the cell’s ability to function and proliferate. 3. Biosynthetic Efficiency: The Key to Proliferation and Lifespan? The study’s findings propose that slowing down biosynthesis, particularly protein synthesis, does not necessarily hinder cellular efficiency. In fact, the study found that cells with reduced biosynthesis used available resources more efficiently. This greater efficiency is key to allowing cells to continue dividing and proliferating, even when their protein synthesis machinery is less active. The study also noted that yeast cells with reduced biosynthetic activity were smaller in size but still managed to proliferate effectively. This suggests that smaller cell size might confer an advantage, enabling cells to use energy and resources more efficiently, potentially leading to enhanced proliferation and longer lifespan under certain conditions. Additionally, reducing protein synthesis helps maintain proteostasis—the balance between protein production, folding, and degradation—thereby preventing the accumulation of damaged proteins. This protective mechanism is crucial for helping cells withstand environmental stress and minimize cellular damage over time. 4. Implications for Cellular Health and Aging Research This study marks a significant shift in how we understand biosynthetic activity and cellular health. Traditionally, higher levels of protein synthesis were believed to correlate with better cell growth and function. However, this study suggests that reducing protein synthesis—especially when biosynthetic activity is optimized—may actually promote cellular longevity and efficiency. For aging research, these findings are particularly important. The study suggests that calorie restriction, a well-known lifespan-extending intervention, may only be effective if the cell’s biosynthetic activity is above a certain threshold. This insight could help scientists develop strategies to extend lifespan and improve cellular health—not by increasing protein synthesis, but by optimizing cellular machinery to function efficiently without overloading it with unnecessary protein production. 5. Conclusion: Rethinking Cellular Efficiency and Proliferation This research provides valuable insights into how reducing biosynthesis affects cell size, growth, and proliferation. By investigating calorie restriction and ribosomal protein gene deletions, the study demonstrates that there is a critical biosynthetic threshold necessary for cells to maintain their efficiency and proliferate. Reducing protein synthesis does not necessarily compromise cell growth or function. In fact, it may enhance the efficient use of cellular resources, leading to longer cell lifespan and better stress resistance. These findings challenge the traditional belief that higher biosynthesis is always better for cell function. Instead, they highlight the importance of finding an optimal level of biosynthetic activity, and understanding this balance could have far-reaching implications for aging research, metabolic diseases, and therapies aimed at improving cellular function in aging organisms. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Ribosomal Gene Deficiency and Calorie Restriction in Shaping Yeast Biosynthetic Capacity".
Blog 02 Mar 2026
encyclopedia>
Community Content
Blackhole Accretion Object Cusps from Rankine–Hugoniot Boundary Conditions
The role of the Rankine–Hugoniot circular boundary conditions within has been attributed a characterization in the analysis of the sonic behaviour of accretion objects in Astrophysical blackhole spacetimes in General Relativity; within the same framework, the definition of cusps on the accretion objects is found to be determined after the same shock properties. The ongoing blackhole-imaging experiments and the projected ones are a suitable phenomenological setting for the validation of the correspondence of the blackhole images with respect to the location of the cusps. The cusps are here described analytically from their geometrical origin; the numerical methods are then compared. I point out that the schemes are now ready for the modeling of jets within the analysis of the accretion-object cusps. It is also my intention to delineate the incompleteness of the further non-geometrical methods. 1. Rankine–Hugoniot Circular Boundary Conditions for the Solutions of the Einstein Field Equations The general relativistic Rankine–Hugoniot (RH) boundary conditions [1-3] were implemented after the work of Taub [4] and were explained with reference to [5], after which the phenomenon is derived, according to which the inequality holds that the velocity of the shock wave [6] is always smaller than that of light in vacuum, i.e., when the shocks are sufficiently strong. The position of RH boundary conditions in GR is discussed in [5], after which the proof is granted that the circular-symmetry accretion object remains defining a static spacetime, i.e., the absence of gravitational torque is ensured. As a result, the application of the RH boundary conditions to the geometrical part of the Einstein Field Equations (EFEs) allows one to describe the presence of one cusp or of more than one cusp in the accretion object of blackholes after the analysis of the sonic behaviour of the macroscopic matter of which the accretion flow consists. 2. Blackhole Figures and Cusps of the Accretion Objects The role of the geometrical aspects of the blackhole accretion discs in the definition of the shadow of the blackholes is underlined in the recent work of Wang [7]. Ibidem, the Schwarzschild spacetime is taken as a useful instance for the sake to investigate blackhole-imaging methodologies which follow the geometrical aspects of the geometrically thick accretion discs. Within the study of the presence of cusps of geometrical origin, on accretion objects, the description is provided with of the different blackhole optical manifestations; the geometrical aspects of the position of the RH boundary conditions on the solution of the EFEs is represented: in this manner, the attempts to ascribe the features of the cusp(s) to hypothetical non-geometrical phenomena is proven up-to-nowadays ruinous, i.e., such as the attempt to relate the geometry of the cusp(s) as ’dark-matter spikes’ is probed incomplete [8], or even mathematically inconsistent [9], i.e., as explained in [10]. 2.1. The Analytical Geometrical Approach to Blackhole Imaging The consistency of the approach towards the geometry of the disc is probed in [7] after the application of the developped methodologies to all the manifestations of the consequences of the geometrical structures, i.e., the direct image, the lensing ring, and the photon ring within the optical regimes which define the emission regions of the optically thin discs, of the optically thick discs, and of partially optically-thick discs. In particular, the method followed is one of prescribing the measure of the inclination angle and that of the inner radius of a chosen set of one-dimensional luminous segments; the explanation of the characterization of the diverse disc configurations is provided below. One of the purposes of the study from [7] is to adapt a theoretical paradigm to shape the future data-analysis techniques dedicated to high-resolution experiments of blackhole observations. According to the work of Gralla et al. [11], the structure of the accretion process is indicated as discriminant regarding the formation of the photon ring; unassociatedly, the analysis of Narayan et al. [12] is aimed at outlining the role of the geometry as surpassing that of the quality of the macroscopic matter chosen as solution of the EFEs when the edge of the shadow is observed—it is now possible to attribute prominence to the presence of a cus in the accretion object in correspondence of the geometrical manifestations of the black hole figures, differently form [12], according to which a Bondi accretion should be considered. From [7], the optically thin discs are didascalized to exhibit the consequences of the flux which is theoretically expected to be diverging at the critical value of the impact parameter i the case the inner edge of the disc emitting region should approach the photon ring: in accordance with these new findings, the diverging value of the flux is tamed after the presence of a cusp (also sharp) close to the critical parameter, which is paired with the presence of the photon ring. From ibidem, the several roles of the inner radius are further exemplified, i.e., with respect to the orbital speed of the emitting material. From ibidem, the location of the inner radius is explored to define the lensing ring. The focus on the angular boundaries of the disc is established accordingly; i.e., the edges of the emitting regions are explicated to possess different brightness. The importance of the inner edge is further understood to determine the characterization of the lensing ring; in contrast, the outer edge is depicted as being influential on the region of the direct emission. 3. General Relativistic Hydrodynamics Techniques General-Relativistic hydrodynamics (GRHD) is a powerful tool to describe the accretion flow onto blackholes in the pertinent spacetimes. The natural angular momentum distribution in thick discs is surveyed in [13]. In the work of GU et al. [14], the Astrophysical configurations of Rankine–Hugoniot shocks are schematized for viscous discs. The parameters studied in ibidem are the specific angular momentum of the accreting blackhole and the energy. The comparison with the inviscid discs is proposed according to the shock formation; more in detail, a continuity in the modifications of the parameter spaces from the inviscid case to the viscous one is postulated. The dissipative flows are considered in [15]; the accretion rate and the angular momentum are taken as initial-value parameter sets for the study of the variation in the energy dissipation at the shock. In the work of Das et al. [16], the methodology is implemented for the study of the axisymmetric flows onto Kerr blackholes being the spin of the blackhole part of the linearized expression of the location of the stationary critical points within the analysis of the transonic behaviour of the accretion object. The experimental validation of the newly found role of the blackhole spin of the model should be observed within black hole-shadow images. The study of galactic-centre black holes, i.e., such as Sgr A*, is performed after considering all the macroscopic matter orbiting the supermassive blackhole [17-20]; the methodology is traced back to [21]. 3.1. The Analytical Studies The case analyzed in [22] is one of a model of axially symmetric, stationary, rotating blackhole spacetime in a pseudo-Newtonian potential. Ibidem, entropy is taken as varying at the shock locations only, the scheme remaining isoentropic, with adiabatic index γ = 4/3. Isothermal shocks are also studied. The wind solutions are scrutinized. The velocities of small acoustic perturbations are studied. From ibidem, the variation in the energy as a function of the location of the critical points is plotted after the choice of a set of angular momenta. In the further analysis of [23], the locations of the sonic points and those of the standing shock waves are investigated analytically with the aim of confirming the existence of global shocks in centrifugal pressure-dominated flows, where the gravitational-pressure term is neglected. The analytical methods developed ibidem comprehend severe approximations. The standing shocks in the regions near the cusps are investigated and compared with the results of [22] as far as the location of the cusp is concerned. The numerical studies and the analytical ones are commented as not being in agreement about the determination of the qualities of the cusp when the specific energy is calculated as a function of the angular momentum. Within the framework of the investigation of the shocks within the unit compression ratio, the variation in the energy, as a function of the specific angular momentum i, was researched again to identify the location of the cusp as that coinciding with the boundary of the disc. The possible mismatch between the approximated analytical methods and the numerical ones is once more outlined. The analysis of [23] is targeted at extrapolating the spectral properties of the shock oscillations and their frequencies. The strategy to relate the theoretically found approximated results with the quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) of hard X-rays is adopted; more in detail, the QPOs are put ibidem in connection with the radiative-transfer phenomena of the Comptonization (innermost) region of the accretion disc. 3.2. The Numerical Investigations In the case analyzed in [24], the GRHD system is implemented numerically in order to study the sub-Keplerian advection-dominated accretion objects which exhibit a cusp in black hole spacetimes. Ibidem, the two instances are studied, i.e., the Schwarzschild spacetime and the Kerr one. In the case the black hole is non-rotating, the initial conditions on the specific angular momentum and on the location of the inner edge of the accretion object are chosen for the accretion material not to fill the Roche lobe: the location of the cusp is calculated numerically accordingly. In the case of the Kerr spacetime, the initial conditions on the specific angular momentum of the accretion objects, as well as that on the location of the inner edge, are set; the location of the cusp is calculated not to coincide with the inner edge of the disc. The relevance of the position of the RH boundary conditions is therefore conceived in the study of the initial condition of the flow parameters, i.e., the specific angular momentum of the accretion object and its specific energy. The choice of the flow parameters defines the radial velocity of the accretion object, according to which the presence of (two) X-type critical sonic points is made possible. The wind solution is demonstrated to be involved with the shock jump. The radial variation in the Mach numbers can thus be studied numerically also in the case of the Kerr spacetimes. 4. Conclusion Theoretical and experimental viewpoints are developed about the geometrical properties of the cusp(s), which are to qualify the different types of blackhole accretion objects. The analytical theory referenced descended from the imposition of the Rankine–Hugoniot boundary conditions on the EFEs for the macroscopic-matter content (solution of the EFEs) of the blackhole accretion objects: their sonic behaviour is this way directly related to the arising of the cusp structures. The presence of cusps modifies the spacetimes—the sought-after evidence in diverse blackhole figures is, in turn, testified in the present blackhole-imaging experiments and is also here advocated to be applied to future data analysis of high-resolution imaging. The derivation of blackhole accretion objects cusps from non-geometrical theoretical endeavours has proven inadequate to describe the spacetimes of GR as ones of global properties; moreover, these theoretical attempts have also proven not to be reduced to any description of the solution of the EFE's nor to any Newtonian limit. References [1] Rankine, W.J.M. On the thermodynamic theory of waves of finite longitudinal disturbances. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 1870, 160, 277–288. [2] Hugoniot, H. M´emoire sur la propagation des mouvements dans les corps et sp´ecialement dans les gaz parfaits (premi´ere partie) Journal de l’´Ecole Polytechnique 1887, 57, 3–97 . [3] Hugoniot, H. M´emoire sur la propagation des mouvements dans les corps et sp´ecialement dans les gaz parfaits (deuxi´eme partie) Journal de l’´Ecole Polytechnique 1889, 58, 1–125. [4] Taub, A.H. Relativistic Rankine-Hugoniot Equations. Phys. Rev. 1948, 74, 328. [5] Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. Fluid Mechanics Pergamon Press Second Edition 1987. [6] Salas, M.D. The curious events leading to the theory of shock waves. Shock Waves 2007, 16, 477–487. [7] Wang, Z.-L. Exploring the role of accretion disk geometry in shaping black hole shadows. Phys. Rev. 2025, D112, 064052. [8] Chan, M.H.; Lee, C.M.; Yu, C.W. Investigating the nature of mass distribution surrounding the Galactic supermassive black hole. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 15258. [9] Nampalliwar, S.; Kumar, S.; Jusufi, K.; Wu, Q.; Jamil, M.; Salucci, P. Modeling the Sgr A* Black Hole Immersed in a Dark Matter Spike. APJ 2021, 916, 116 . [10] Lecian, O.M. The Nampalliwar-Saurabh-Jusufi-Wu-Jamil-Salucci 2021 metrics do not pass the Einstein-Field Equations nor the Birkhoff theorem in General-Relativity Theory, DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.35199.68005. [11] Gralla, S.E.; Holz, D.E.; Wald, R.M. Black Hole Shadows, Photon Rings, and Lensing Rings. Phys. Rev. 2019, D100, 024018. [12] Narayan, R.; Johnson, M.D.; Gammie, C.F. The Shadow of a Spherically Accreting Black Hole. Astrophys. J. Lett. 2019, 885, L33. [13] Chakrabarti, S.K. The natural angular momentum distribution in the study of thick disks around black holes. APJ 1985, 288, 1–6 . [14] Wei-Min G.; Ju-Fu L. Standing Rankine-Hugoniot Shocks in Black Hole Accretion Discs. Chinese Phys. Lett. 2004, 21 2551. [15] Das, S.; Chakrabarti, S.K.; Mondal, S. Studies of dissipative standing shock waves around black holes. MNRAS 2010, 401, 2053–2058. [16] Das, T.K.; Nag, S.; Hegde S.; Bhattacharya, S.; Maity, I.; Czerny, B.; Barai, P. Paul J.; et al., Black Hole spin dependence of general relativistic multi-transonic accretion close to the horizon. 2014, e-print arXiv:1211.6952v2. [17] Hailey, C.; Mori, K.; Bauer, F.; Berkowitz, M.E.; Hong J.; Hord B.J. A density cusp of quiescent X-ray binaries in the central parsec of the Galaxy. Nature 2018, 556, 70–73. [18] Peissker, F.; Zajac’ek, M.; Labadie, L.; Bordier, E.; Eckart, A.; Melamed M.; Karas V. A binary system in the S cluster close to the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A*, Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 10608. [19] Genzel, R.; Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Eisenhauer, F.; Hofmann, R.; Lehnert, M.; Eckart, A.; Alexander, T.; et al. The Stellar Cusp around the Super-massive Black Hole in the Galactic Center APJ 2023, 594, 812. [20] Mouawad, N.; Eckart, A.; Pfalzner S.; Schödel, R.; Moultaka, J.; Spurzemet, R. Weighing the cusp at the Galactic Center, Astron. Nachr. 2005, 326, 83. [21] Hetrzsprung, E. Comparison between the distribution of the energy in the spectrum of the integrated light of the globular cluster Messier 3 and of the neighboring stars, APJ 1915, 41, 10. [22] Chakrabarti, S.K. Standing Rankine-Hugoniot shocks in the hybrid model flows of the black hole accretion and winds. APJ 1989, 347, 365–372. [23] Das, S.; Chattopadhyay, I.; Chakrabarti, S.K. Standing Shocks around Black Holes: An Analytical Study. APJ 2001, 557, 983–989. [24] Garain, S.K. A general relativistic hydrodynamic simulation code for studying advective, sub-Keplerian accretion flow onto black holes. 2025, e-print: arXiv:2506.01557v1. Biography Prof. Dr. Orchidea Maria Lecian graduated and defended her PhD Thesis at Sapienza University of Rome and ICRA, Italy. She was postdoctoral Fellow at IHES, Bures s/Yvette, and at Sapienza University of Rome. She was invited in intensive-research programmes, such as at the Max Plank Institute- Potsdam, at The Fields Institute for Research in Mathematical Sciences- Toronto, and at Milan State University. She received the SAIA-NS’P International Researcher’s Fellowship and was appointed Erasmus Lecturer at Comenius University-Bratislava . She was Visiting Professor at Kursk State University after the Programme Education in Russia. She was Assistant Professor and has been Associate Professor at Sapienza University of Rome. She has been serving several International Journals with editorial positions. She has participated in several National Conferences and International ones. She is member of several research consortia. She is author of research papers, review papers, conference-proceeding papers, encyclopedia entries, six books and several book chapters.
Blog 24 Feb 2026
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
How Does Dhurrin Contribute to Sorghum Defense during Head Smut Infection?
Plants have evolved multiple defense layers to cope with environmental stresses and pathogen attacks. In sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), one of the main chemical defenses is the cyanogenic glucoside dhurrin, which can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) upon bioactivation. Because of this biochemical link, dhurrin content and hydrogen cyanide potential (HCNp) have often been treated as closely associated indicators of sorghum defense capacity. A recent study published in MDPI Plants entitled “Unveiling the Potential Role of Dhurrin in Sorghum During Infection by the Head Smut Pathogen Sporisorium reilianum f. sp. reilianum” investigates the genomic basis of HCN variation in sorghum seedlings and explores whether dhurrin alone governs defense responses during early infection. 1. Dhurrin as a Chemical Defense in Sorghum Dhurrin is particularly abundant in young vegetative tissues, where it functions as a rapid-response chemical defense. Upon tissue damage or stress, dhurrin undergoes hydrolysis, releasing HCN, a compound toxic to many herbivores and pathogens. Previous studies have established dhurrin’s role in sorghum responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Because HCN is a direct product of dhurrin bioactivation, dhurrin content and HCNp are often used interchangeably. However, whether dhurrin biosynthesis and bioactivation fully explain variation in HCNp—especially during pathogen infection—has remained unclear. 2. Head Smut Infection and Early Defense Responses Head smut, caused by Sporisorium reilianum f. sp. reilianum, infects sorghum seedlings before visible symptoms appear. This early infection stage makes seedling defense mechanisms crucial. Interestingly, previous studies have shown that enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway, such as chalcone synthase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), do not strongly accumulate after inoculation with the pathogen. This suggests that other biochemical pathways, including cyanogenic defense, may play more relevant roles during the early stages of infection. 3. Investigating Hydrogen Cyanide Variation through GWAS To examine the genetic basis of HCNp, the researchers conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using a diverse set of sorghum accessions. Seedling HCNp was qualitatively assessed, and these phenotypes were combined with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data for association analysis. The GWAS revealed that variation in HCNp cannot be explained solely by dhurrin biosynthesis and bioactivation genes. Multiple genomic regions contribute to this trait, suggesting a complex genetic architecture for cyanogenic potential in seedlings. These findings challenge the assumption that dhurrin alone governs HCN variation during early development. 4. Gene Expression Responses to Pathogen Inoculation The study further investigated dhurrin’s role by examining the expression of dhurrin biosynthetic genes following head smut inoculation. Reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analyses showed that these genes were not strongly or uniformly induced by pathogen exposure. This suggests that while dhurrin is present and potentially important for defense, its regulation may differ between resistant and susceptible lines and is unlikely to be the sole determinant of defense outcomes against head smut. 5. Implications for Sorghum Resistance The combined results support a nuanced view of cyanogenic defense in sorghum: Dhurrin contributes to seedling defense, particularly in resistant lines. Other genetic and biochemical factors likely influence HCNp and pathogen resistance. Solely selecting for dhurrin content may overlook other contributors to early defense, highlighting the need for a more integrated breeding strategy. These insights are important for both sorghum breeding programs and fundamental understanding of plant-pathogen interactions, emphasizing that cyanogenic glucosides function within a broader defensive network. 6. Conclusion This study provides valuable insights into dhurrin’s role during sorghum–head smut interactions by integrating phenotypic assessment, GWAS, and gene expression profiling. Dhurrin is an important component of defense but not the exclusive determinant of HCN variation or seedling resistance. By uncovering the genetic diversity underlying HCNp and highlighting the complexity of early defense mechanisms, the research encourages an integrated approach to sorghum disease resistance—one that considers dhurrin as a significant, but not solitary, contributor to pathogen defense. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Dhurrin’s Role in Sorghum Head Smut Infection Defense".
Blog 14 Feb 2026
encyclopedia>
Ongoing
Best Video Abstract Awards
The Encyclopedia platform, together with the journals Biology and Nutrients, launches the Best Video Abstract Awards to increase the visibility and reach of published research and to inspire researchers to explore the power of visual storytelling. Video abstracts have become an increasingly important medium for scientific communication. By integrating narration, visualizations, animations, and experimental footage, they make complex research more accessible, engaging, and memorable. This initiative recognizes video abstracts that are not only scientifically rigorous but also creatively compelling and educational, thereby promoting broader dissemination and deeper community engagement. To learn more about the awards or to participate directly, please visit the event page via the links provided below. https://encyclopedia.pub/best-video-abstract-award 1. Event Duration 9 February 2026 – 2 February 2027 2. Awards Biology Best Video Abstract AwardOpen to video abstracts based on papers published in Biology between 1 January 2024 and 31 December 2025. This award will be granted to two video abstracts based on the evaluation of the Award Evaluation Committee. Nutrients Best Video Abstract AwardOpen to video abstracts based on papers published in Nutrients between 1 January 2024 and 31 December 2025. This award will be granted to two video abstracts based on the evaluation of the Award Evaluation Committee. Prize For each journal award, the winner will receive: CHF 500 A voucher waiving the Article Processing Charges (APCs) for one journal submission (subject to peer review, valid for one year) A free Academic Video Service production (no matter where the paper is published), valid for one year. An electronic certificate Participant Incentive All participants will receive a CHF 100 discount voucher for the Encyclopedia Academic Video Service. 3. Participation The event will be conducted in three stages. Submission Stage 9 February 2026 – 31 August 2026 Independent Submission Authors may create and submit video abstracts independently using their own tools and creative approach. Professional Support Option Authors who do not currently have a video abstract but intend to apply for the award may opt for the Academic Video Service, which offers a one-stop, end-to-end solution covering script development, animation, voiceover recording, and editing. Please submit your video abstract here: https://encyclopedia.pub/user/video_add?activity=b57ab0910b456a5e4eebd960867ce205 Or place your video service order here: https://encyclopedia.pub/user/video_service_order All video abstracts will be assessed by the editorial team for editorial suitability and overall quality. Submissions that meet the guidelines will be assessed equally. Voting Stage 1 November 2026 – 31 December 2026 Public voting will be conducted during this period. Voting results and video performance metrics, including views, likes, shares, and collections, will contribute to the final evaluation. Winner Announcement 2 February 2027 Final winners will be determined based on a combined assessment of public voting results and a comprehensive evaluation by the Award Evaluation Committee, which carries the primary weight in the final decision. Winners will be announced on the Encyclopedia platform and journal websites. 4. Others If you have any other questions, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub
Announcement 09 Feb 2026
encyclopedia>
Ongoing
Impact Report 2025: How MDPI Video Abstracts Enhance Research Visibility
Highlights Video Abstracts (VAs) have evolved from experimental novelties into essential tools for research dissemination, significantly enhancing scholarly communication in a digital-first era, offering a repeatable model for maximizing impact in a competitive digital landscape. The MDPI Video Service produced 118 professional VAs in collaboration with 68 journals across 11 disciplines, serving 1,149 researchers and fostering a vibrant academic community in 2025. Video abstracts produced by MDPI's Video Service significantly boost article visibility, downloads, and citations, with case studies showing marked increases across journals such as Remote Sensing, Animals, Nutrients, and Entropy. 1. Introduction In 2011, quantum physicist Barry Sanders and his team at the University of Calgary broke new ground by publishing a video abstract (VA) alongside their pioneering research on qubits [1]. This four-minute visual summary, shared on YouTube amid viral content of cats and pop music, demonstrated a transformative idea: complex science could be communicated dynamically, reaching audiences far beyond traditional academic circles. Over a decade later, video abstracts (VAs) have evolved from experimental novelties into essential tools for research dissemination. As digital platforms dominate how knowledge is consumed and shared, the question is no longer whether video abstracts will endure, but how they redefine scholarly impact. In 2025, MDPI launched its Academic Video Service, aiming to support scholars through the production of Video Abstracts, Short Takes, Scholar Interviews, and Profile Videos. MDPI’s Video Service has witnessed a remarkable surge in interest from researchers worldwide. A growing community of scholars has progressed from discovering video abstracts for the first time to actively embracing their production, recognizing their power to transform specialized research into accessible knowledge. This report compiles and analyzes most of the data from the MDPI video service, with a focus on evaluating the role of VAs in enhancing scholarly communication. 2. Background and Market Context 2.1. The Visual Turn in Scholarly Communication The global video streaming market is projected to grow from USD 131.44 billion in 2024 to approximately USD 599.2 billion in 2033 [2], and many findings have indicated that this will be progressively accompanied by the use of social networking tools for informal scholarly communication [3], reflecting the increasing social reliance on video-based content. Within this context, scholarly communication is undergoing a “visual shift,” leading to the rise of VAs. The evolution of academic video publication—from early initiatives such as Screenworks (distributed alongside The Journal of Media Practice on DVD in 2006) to established platforms like JoVE (Journal of Visualized Experiments)—reflects the formal recognition of video as a legitimate form of scholarly output, now indexed in major academic databases [4]. This institutional acceptance aligns with a broader shift in research practices, as scholars increasingly utilize social media as a professional platform to amplify the reach and impact of their work [5]. 2.2. Core Value Proposition of VAs By combining dynamic visuals and narration, VAs distill and visualize the core concepts, methods, and contributions of academic papers. A growing body of research indicates that video content can contribute to an increase in various research metrics, such as citations and views [6]. They fulfill key roles in several communication scenarios: For broader research audiences (e.g., policymakers, industry R&D personnel, advanced students): VAs expand the reach and social visibility of academic work. For domain experts: VAs provide a more intuitive and information-dense overview than textual abstracts, improving literature screening efficiency. For interdisciplinary scholars: VAs reduce comprehension barriers and foster cross-disciplinary innovation. Within this expanding ecosystem, a growing number of academic service providers—including established players such as Springer Nature’s Video Abstract services, Wiley’s Research Video initiatives, and Taylor & Francis’s multimedia publishing programs—have entered the field, recognizing the potential of video to enhance research communication. 3. VA Production and Dissemination Data from MDPI's Academic Video Service, 2025 This section presents data sourced from MDPI’s Academic Video Service’s internal database and public analytics from third-party services, including YouTube, Facebook, and LinkedIn, reflecting the performance of the service throughout 2025. Where relevant, results are benchmarked against 2024 to illustrate year-over-year growth and trends. 3.1. Production Scale and Scholarly Coverage The inaugural year of MDPI's Academic Video Service has established a robust foundation for video abstract production and distribution. The service has successfully engaged a broad academic community while developing specialized content across multiple disciplines. The following data outlines the scope and reach achieved during the reporting period. Some of the partner journal series. The service produced 118 professional VAs and maintained 13 active VA-related video series. Collaborative partnerships with 68 leading academic journals spanned 10 major disciplines, including Medicine & Pharmacology, Biology & Life Sciences, Engineering, Environmental & Earth Sciences, Computer Science & Mathematics, Chemistry & Materials Science, Public Health & Healthcare, Social Sciences, Business & Economics, and Arts & Humanities. A total of 1,149 researchers have used the service, including 60 scholars who participated in customized VA production, with all content distributed through social media channels (Figure 1). Figure 1. Researchers who used MDPI’s Academic Video Service. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. 3.2. Multi-Platform Dissemination and Performance VAs demonstrated strong performance across multiple distribution channels, showing substantial growth in reach and engagement metrics during the reporting period. In total, the produced VAs achieved 782,478 views across the Encyclopedia platform, Facebook, and YouTube, with 48,295,814 impressions recorded on the Encyclopedia platform and YouTube. A. VA Performance on Encyclopedia Platform As one of MDPI's key academic initiatives, Encyclopedia serves as MDPI’s primary platform for delivering integrated academic services. All the VAs produced through MDPI’s Academic Video Service were published through this platform. The year-over-year data reveals a story of validated success. The video content generated a monumental 47,834,514 total impressions, 41,240 total views, and 9,988 unique viewers. The number of unique viewers grew from 5,235 to 9,988, an unprecedented 90.8% year-over-year increase, demonstrating the efficient capture of audience interest at scale. B. VA Performance on YouTube The VAs produced were simultaneously released on MDPI’s YouTube channel. MDPI’s YouTube channel serves as a critical engine for global discoverability, showing strong year-over-year growth across all key metrics (Table 1). The following are the browsing-related data for VAs hosted on the YouTube channel. Table 1. Year-over-Year (YoY) Performance—video abstract channel metrics. All data was obtained from YouTube. Given that the VAs that are produced and published are generally around 4 minutes long, a watch time of 2:57 is equivalent to viewing nearly 73.75% of a VA. 3.3. Disciplinary Distribution of VA Engagement By analyzing and structuring VA browsing data across disciplines and research fields, we identified pronounced variations in the level of interest in VAs among scholars. These variations are evident in both scholars’ propensity to create VAs and their degree of engagement in consuming VA content. As shown in Figure 1, life sciences demonstrate the strongest participation, with Biology & Life Sciences recording the highest views (10,203) and attracting the largest viewer base (2,285). Medicine & Pharmacology and Engineering offer solid mid-tier performance with 9,948 and 5,149 views, respectively. Environmental & Earth Sciences (3,940 views) and Computer Science & Mathematics (3,337 views) show established audience interest, and Chemistry & Materials Science (3,125 views) also demonstrates consistent engagement (Figure 2). The findings indicate that scholars in biological, medical, and engineering fields are most active in watching video abstracts. Figure 2. Distribution of page views by academic discipline. Medicine, Biology, and Engineering ranked among the top three. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. The following chart (Figure 3, 4) reveals clear patterns in audience distribution across academic disciplines, providing insights into which fields show the strongest engagement (comments, likes, favorites) with video abstracts. Figure 3. Distribution of viewers by academic discipline. While the top three fields were unchanged, Biology drew a larger audience despite having fewer videos. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. Figure 4. Distribution of video engagement by academic discipline. Biology and Medicine showed noticeably higher engagement compared to other disciplines. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. Biology & Life Sciences leads in audience reach with 2,285 viewers, closely followed by Medicine & Pharmacology with 2,222 viewers. These two disciplines together account for the largest share of VA viewership, reflecting strong scholarly interest in life science content. Based on the survey conducted by the MDPI Video Service regarding user satisfaction (Figure 5), approximately 50% of VA users hold professorial positions, including full professors, associate professors, and assistant professors. PHD students and Post-Doctoral researchers comprise 8.3% and 16.7% of the user base, respectively. Researchers from non-academic institutions account for 8.4%, while independent researchers represent 4.2%. The remaining users include consultants, visiting scientists, and retired researchers. Figure 5. Word cloud of user attributes. All data was obtained from the video service survey. Overall, the VA audience is predominantly composed of research professionals. The higher level of engagement observed among professors suggests that their interest in VA is likely driven by teaching and presentation requirements, stronger funding capacity, and sustained academic output. Furthermore, while the non-academic segment represents slightly more than 8% of users, it demonstrates tangible potential and should not be viewed as a market without opportunity. 3.4. Other Video Product Performance Throughout the reporting period, the MDPI Academic Video Service created 13 Scholar Interview videos, presenting conversations with prominent academics on their research and perspectives. This format holds particular appeal for audiences seeking direct insights from researchers. As shown in Table 2, this series garnered 2,034 views. It gained prominent exposure via 424,059 main page impressions and secured extensive reach through 5,658,196 recommending impressions. Table 2. Performance of Scholar Interview series. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. This finding indicates a broad acceptance among scholars of interview-based video formats as an effective medium for content delivery. The strong performance of this series across discovery channels suggests that the content aligns well with diverse audience preferences. 3.5. Academic Community Engagement Through VA Activities The MDPI video service launched a ScholarVision Creations event on the Encyclopedia platform in 2024. The event was designed to introduce users to VAs and engage them in the VA production process. The event concluded with a vote to select the most popular VA created during the event period. The event drew considerable participation from scholars, generating notable momentum and driving interest in video abstracts (Table 3). Its strong reception reflects a clear interest among researchers in VAs as a format for academic communication. Table 3. Performance metrics of ScholarVision Creations Event and platform engagement. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. The event yielded 40 videos and involved 204 participants. Four researchers garnered awards for outstanding contributions, while participants completed 2,669 engagements during the event (engagements include creating entries, submitting images, editing entries, and similar actions). Page views increased by ~930% and Visitors by ~690%, indicating highly effective audience reach. The exceptionally high conversion rate of new users into credit recipients directly reflects a strong user interest in the campaign's core value and a clear intent to engage with VA creation. 4. Impact of Video Abstracts on Enhancing Research Visibility The effect of VAs on article performance represents the primary area of concern among scholars. Accordingly, this section consolidates data collected from VAs and articles, examining both the VAs' impact on their corresponding original articles and the dissemination performance of the articles across online channels. 4.1. VA-Driven Changes in Article Reach and Metrics Over the past year, tracking the performance of the VA Series and comparing its data with that of the previous reporting cycle has revealed a clear trend: the substantial growth in the platform-wide exposure of VAs has expanded into the millions. This marks a dramatic rise from the previous statistical period (2024), when total exposure across all VA series remained below 200,000 (181,553) impressions (Table 4). Table 4. The exposure of individual series has now reached the millions. All data was obtained from Encyclopedia. *The JCM VA series was established in 2025 and therefore does not have corresponding data for the previous statistical period (2024). A comparative study was conducted using articles published in four target journals—Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM), Agronomy, Remote Sensing, and Nutrients—with Impact Factors of 2.9, 3.4, 4.1, and 5.0, respectively. The analysis covers all articles released between January 1, 2023, and October 31, 2025. Articles accompanied by video abstracts (with VAs produced by MDPI’s academic video service; 30 in total) were designated as the experimental group, while the remaining 24,906 articles without VAs published during the same period formed the control group. For both cohorts, cumulative performance metrics—including article views, downloads, and citations—were collected up to the common statistical cutoff date. A comparison of group-level averages across these key indicators (Figures 6, 7, 8) enables a systematic assessment of the long-term impact of VAs on content dissemination and academic influence. Figure 6. After implementing VAs, the average view count of all journals significantly exceeded that of those without VAs. All data was obtained from MDPI. Figure 7. Comparison of average article downloads with and without VA support across four journals, showing consistent increases in downloads for video-supported articles, with relative increases ranging from 3.94% to 47.19%. All data was obtained from MDPI. Figure 8. Comparison of average article impact metrics for articles published with and without MDPI’s Academic Video support across four journals, showing consistently higher values for video-supported articles. All data was obtained from MDPI. In terms of uplift magnitude, page views increased by as much as 112.25% for Remote Sensing, citation growth reached a peak of 201.2% for JCM, and download growth spanned the range between 3.94% and 47.19%. These results highlight clear differences in the strength of the VA service across the dimensions of content dissemination and scholarly impact. Remote Sensing is the journal benefiting most strongly from VA, recording a 112.25% surge in page views—the highest among all journals—alongside a 51% increase in citations and a 3.94% rise in downloads. This profile reflects an exposure-driven, burst-style growth pattern. For newly integrated JCM articles, VAs demonstrate exceptional effectiveness in driving both academic impact (citations) and downstream conversion (downloads). This finding aligns with the earlier analysis, which indicates stronger audience engagement with biology & medicine content. By contrast, Agronomy exhibits a well-balanced response to VAs, with no pronounced weaknesses and steady improvements across the entire dissemination-to-impact pipeline. Nutrients also records positive gains across all three indicators (citations +30.61%, downloads +12.35%, views +9.22%), though the overall increase remains comparatively limited and weaker than that observed for the other three journals. Taken together, the results show that VAs effectively enhanced both dissemination efficiency (views to downloads) and academic impact (citations) across all four journals. However, its effectiveness is clearly shaped by disciplinary characteristics: technology-focused journals (e.g., Remote Sensing) tend to achieve rapid gains in visibility through VAs, whereas medical journals (e.g., JCM) perform better at translating enhanced exposure into deeper academic influence. 4.2. Impact of Video Abstracts on Research Dissemination The deployment of a VA serves as an effective catalyst for the associated research article, as evidenced by the Encyclopedia video dashboard and data from social media platforms. A. Article Visibility Amplified by VA Distribution Each VA prominently features the article’s DOI within the video content itself. This design ensures a direct navigational pathway from VA exposure to the original publication, providing a clear analytical rationale for attributing changes in article access (views) behavior to VA visibility. The impact of a VA on article visibility is assessed by continuously monitoring and comparing article access data before and after the VA is made available online. Case 1: Optimizing Lettuce Growth in Nutrient Film Technique Hydroponics: Evaluating the Impact of Elevated Oxygen Concentrations in the Root Zone under LED Illumination Case 1 was initially published on August 24, 2024. During its first month, it received 816 page views, averaging 25.5 daily views, and reached a monthly peak of 1,163 in the third month. The average daily views over the first three months totaled 30.4, after which traffic gradually declined and stabilized. Prior to the release of the VA, the article’s monthly views averaged 677.7. The associated VA was launched on July 22, 2025. Following the launch, page views rose to 906 in the first month, representing a 33.7% increase over the pre-VA monthly average. Traffic continued to grow over the subsequent three months, reaching a peak of 1,763 in November 2025—an increase of 160% compared to the pre-VA baseline. As of the report date, December traffic stood at 1,309, still 93% higher than the pre-VA average. Over the five months following the VA release, the article averaged 1,383.6 monthly views (44.6 daily views), reflecting a 104% increase in growth relative to the monthly average before the VA launch. Figure 9. Viewership trend of Case 1 after its publication. All data was obtained from MDPI. Insights from the line chart and supporting data reveal that the VA maintained a persistent impact on readership well beyond its publication date, significantly improving the article’s visibility and engagement trajectory. Case 2: A Survey of Object Detection for UAVs Based on Deep Learning The article examined in this analysis was initially published on December 29, 2023, with its associated VA content released on February 24, 2024. During the first three months after publication, the article exhibited stable and consistent performance. Average daily traffic remained at 17.7 views, while monthly views increased gradually from 535 to 639 (Figure 10), implying a normal early-stage growth pattern without external intervention. The deployment of the VA marked a clear inflection point in the traffic trajectory. In the first full month following launch (March 2024), article views increased sharply by 62.4% to 1,038. Following a brief and modest correction in April 2024—likely attributable to natural fluctuation—traffic strongly rebounded, reaching a cycle peak of 1,415 views in May 2024. This period represents the concentrated achievement of the synergistic impact generated by a VA. Following this peak, beginning in June 2024, the article’s traffic entered a gradual and anticipated normalization phase, ultimately stabilizing at a sustained level that remained structurally higher than the initial baseline. Figure 10. Viewership trend of Case 2 before and after the launch of its VA. All data was obtained from MDPI. Overall, this pattern aligns with a classic content re-amplification lifecycle, wherein the introduction of a VA catalyzes short-term pulse growth, followed by convergence toward a new steady state. B. Expanding Reach to New Audiences via Social Platforms Case 3: Attitudes Toward Managing the Fish-Eating Great Cormorant The article analyzed here was published on April 23, 2025, with its associated VA content released on July 3, 2025, and concurrently distributed via the Facebook homepage. By the statistical cutoff date of January 27, 2026, the video had generated 409,966 cumulative views while reaching 9,224 unique users (Figure 11), yielding an exceptionally high views-to-reach ratio and indicating strong visibility amplification and repeated content consumption. Figure 11. Performance overview of Case 3 on Facebook. All data was obtained from Facebook. Total viewership for this VA amounted to 12 days and 5 hours (293 hours in total), distributed as shown in the chart above. In addition, the watch time distribution (Figure 12) reveals a critical insight: the audience composition suggests that the vast majority of views originated from non-followers, highlighting the VA’s effectiveness in reaching new viewers and expanding content discoverability. Figure 12. Watch time distribution. This significant difference is largely due to the extensive exposure and the number of followers. All data was obtained from Facebook Insights. The data reveal a pronounced drop-off in viewing depth; however, 78,947 instances of 3-second views suggest that the video initially captured attention. The Watch Time Trend (Figure 13) indicates effective initial audience engagement and successful early reach. Figure 13. The Watch Time Trend Chart illustrates a robust launch phase in late July, with watch time quickly reaching a significant initial level. All data was obtained from Facebook Insights. Throughout August and September, the watch time maintained consistently high performance, reflecting stable viewer interest and strong retention. The stability during this period suggests that the content had lasting value and continued to attract views well beyond its release date. A gradual decline is visible from October onwards—a common pattern for published content over time. Furthermore, the post for the VA achieved 819 impressions and an impressive 312 views on LinkedIn. In other words, the video achieved a view-through rate (VTR) of 39.2%, calculated by dividing views by impressions (321/819). This substantially exceeds typical industry benchmarks for academic and professional content, which generally range between 15 and 25. This high VTR indicates significant content relevance and a strong appeal to the target audience. Over the past year, the average VTR of all the VAs published on LinkedIn reached an impressive 62.4%, well above the general range mentioned earlier. 5. Conclusions and Outlook The evidence presented in this report leads to an unequivocal conclusion: in an increasingly crowded digital landscape, the VA has evolved from a novel supplement into a critical component of a modern research dissemination strategy. The data confirms that VAs deliver transformative value by directly addressing the core challenge of academic visibility. For Authors: VAs capture global attention and drive engagement, translating into increased article visibility and academic impact. For Journals: VAs significantly boost content consumption metrics and expand readership through algorithmic distribution, enhancing the journal's reach and influence. Looking forward, the integration of video into scholarly communication is not a passing trend but a fundamental shift. Many researchers feel that deepening understanding is a collaborative effort. Thus, extending an invitation for others to engage with their work is a natural and rewarding step. About MDPI’s Video Service The MDPI Video Service was launched in 2025 to meet the growing demand for dynamic research dissemination. The service offers comprehensive video solutions, including Video Abstracts, Short Takes, and Profile Videos. MDPI’s video service provides a one-stop service, including one-on-one video assistance, script writing, high-quality animation, a native speaker voice, quality assurance, and social media promotion. For video examples, see Heat-Sealing Process for Chañar Brea Gum Films and ESG Reporting for Large US Airports Reference [1] Spicer, S. Exploring Video Abstracts in Science Journals: An Overview and Case Study. J. Librariansh. Sch. Commun. 2014, 2，eP1110. [2] Video Streaming Market Trends, Shares, Competition and Growth Forecast 2025-2033 - Cloud Tech and Mobile Platforms Continue to Transform the Landscape, Fueling User Engagement and Market Expansion. Available Online: https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/10/31/3178410/28124/en/Video-Streaming-Market-Trends-Shares-Competition-and-Growth-Forecast-2025-2033-Cloud-Tech-and-Mobile-Platforms-Continue-to-Transform-the-Landscape-Fueling-User-Engagement-and-Marke.html (accessed on 11 November 2025) [3] Al-Aufi, A; Fulton, C. Impact of social networking tools on scholarly communication: a cross-institutional study. Electron. Libr. 2015, 33, 224–241. [4] Laaser, W.; Toloza, E.A. The changing role of the educational video in higher distance education. Int. Rev. Res. Open Dis. 2017, 18, 2.  [5] Gazi, M. A. I.; Rahaman, M. A.; Rabbi, M. F.; Masum, M.; Nabi, M. N.; Senathirajah, A. R. bin S. The Role of Social Media in Enhancing Communication among Individuals: Prospects and Problems. Environ. Soc. Psychol. 2024, 9, 11. [6] Bonnevie, T.; Repel, A.; Gravier, F.E.; Ladner, J.; Sibert, L.; Muir, J.F.; Cuvelier, A.; Fischer, M.O. Video abstracts are associated with an increase in research reports citations, views and social attention: a cross-sectional study. Scientometrics 2023, 128, 3001–3015.
Announcement 03 Feb 2026
encyclopedia>
Ongoing
Academic Video Service Update: Pricing Changes, Vouchers, and New Scholar Profile
Dear Valued Customers, We are writing to inform you of upcoming changes to our video services that will take effect on February 3, 2026, at 00:00 (Swiss time). 1. Price Adjustment We will be discontinuing the discounts previously offered for our video services, and prices will revert to their original rates. Video Abstract: 600 CHF Short Take: 500 CHF Scholar Interview: 400 CHF 2. Introduction of Vouchers We are excited to announce that we will now support the use of MDPI Reviewer Vouchers and Video Production Vouchers. The relevant usage rules are as follows: Each video may be redeemed using one Reviewer Voucher or one Video Production Voucher. MDPI Reviewer Vouchers can only be used by the voucher owner, while Video Production Vouchers have no user restriction. 3. New Scholar Profile We are introducing a new type of video product: the Scholar Profile. This creates a personalized showcase for scholars by documenting their academic journeys and highlighting their achievements. The price for this service is 500 CHF. We appreciate your understanding and continued support during this transition. If you have any questions or require further clarification, please do not hesitate to contact our customer service team. Thank you for choosing our services. Sincerely, MDPI Author Services
Announcement 02 Feb 2026
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
Can Tree Sap Replace Plastic? The Story of Chañar Brea Gum Films
Modern society relies heavily on plastic packaging. It protects food, extends shelf life, reduces transportation losses, and supports global supply chains. Yet the very properties that make plastics useful—durability, resistance to moisture, and low cost—also make them persistent pollutants in ecosystems. Microplastics are now found in soil, oceans, and even human bodies. As a result, scientists and engineers are actively searching for alternatives that are not only functional but also biodegradable, renewable, and environmentally compatible. A recent study published in MDPI Processes entitled "Heat-Sealing Process for Chañar Brea Gum Films" explores exactly this connection between material properties, processing methods, and sustainability by investigating chañar brea gum as a potential biodegradable and heat-sealable packaging material. The research does not simply ask whether this natural gum can form films, but how its molecular structure, thermal behavior, mechanical performance, and barrier properties interact—and how these relationships ultimately shape its practical usability in packaging applications. 1. What is Chañar Brea Gum? Chañar brea gum is a natural exudate obtained from the Chañar brea tree (Parkinsonia praecox, also known as Cercidium praecox or “palo verde”). This tree thrives in the Chaco forest of Argentina, a semi-arid region where vegetation has adapted to withstand high temperatures and limited water availability. The gum is collected either from intentional superficial cuts or from naturally occurring wounds on the trunk and branches. Production is typically highest during spring and summer, when sap flow is most active. After harvesting, the raw gum undergoes purification: it is dissolved in water, filtered to remove impurities, and then dried and milled into a fine powder suitable for material processing. This purification step is essential, as natural gums often contain bark particles, dust, or microbial residues that could otherwise compromise film quality and consistency. 2. From Gum to Packaging Film To transform chañar brea gum into a functional packaging material, the purified powder was dissolved in distilled water to form a viscous solution. A plasticizer—commonly glycerol—was then added to improve flexibility and reduce brittleness; without this step, the resulting film tends to be rigid and prone to cracking. In the study, this solution was cast into a thin layer and dried under controlled conditions to form a film. In their experimental design, the researchers treated variables such as gum concentration, plasticizer content, and relative humidity during drying as critical parameters, since these factors influence film thickness, mechanical performance, and barrier properties. Close control of these processing conditions is therefore important for tailoring the properties of the final material. 3. Heat Sealing: Making Functional Packages Beyond simply forming films, the researchers examined whether chañar brea gum could be applied in practical packaging applications. By applying heat and pressure, they successfully bonded layers of 10% chañar brea gum film to form a rectangular container (18 × 12 cm). Because chañar brea gum behaves as a hydrocolloid, precise control of temperature and sealing time was required during heat sealing. Excessive heat could degrade the material, whereas insufficient heat would result in incomplete or weak bonding. To investigate sealing behavior in more detail, additional experiments were conducted on smaller strips (2 × 10 cm) oriented horizontally and vertically, and a joint determination method was applied to analyze bonding performance. 4. A Comprehensive Materials Study Rather than focusing on a single property, the study took a holistic approach to characterizing chañar brea gum films. The researchers employed a suite of analytical techniques, including: Proximate analysis to determine composition. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to examine molecular structure. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) to analyze thermal transitions. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA–DTG) to assess thermal stability. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) to investigate molecular arrangement. In addition, mechanical testing was used to evaluate strength and flexibility, while measurements of antioxidant capacity, water vapor permeability, water sorption, and biodegradability were conducted to assess functional performance. By integrating these results, the study sought to clarify how molecular structure, composition, thermal behavior, and mechanical properties interact—and how these factors ultimately govern heat sealability. 5. What the Results Revealed The findings demonstrate several notable characteristics of chañar brea gum films: Thermal stability: Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the material remained stable up to approximately 200 °C, with an onset of melting behavior near 152.48 °C, suggesting compatibility with typical food packaging processing conditions. Structural consistency: X-ray diffraction indicated similar interstrand spacing in the polymer network for untreated CBG (4.88 nm) and heat-treated CBG-H (4.66 nm), reflecting overall structural consistency. Microstructure: Scanning electron microscopy of heat-sealed joints revealed rounded surface features, and cross-sectional imaging showed a homogeneous internal structure with minimal gaps—both indicative of strong bonding. Barrier performance: Water vapor permeability decreased markedly from roughly 1.7 g·mm/m²·day·kPa for untreated films to 0.37 g·mm/m²·day·kPa after heat treatment, demonstrating improved moisture barrier performance. Mechanical properties: Mechanical testing showed that Young’s modulus decreased from about 132 MPa to 96.5 MPa after heat treatment, indicating a modest increase in flexibility—an advantageous change for packaging applications. Heat sealability: The ability to form reliable seals was quantified at approximately 656 N/m, a competitive value for biodegradable films. Biodegradability: Most notably, biodegradability testing indicated that the material degraded fully in about four days under the study conditions, underscoring its environmental compatibility. Overall, heat treatment tended to enhance barrier properties while slightly reducing stiffness, highlighting a favorable trade-off for practical packaging use. 6. Why This Matters for Sustainable Packaging Conventional plastics can persist in the environment for decades or even centuries. In contrast, the biodegradable nature of chañar brea gum films means they break down rapidly under natural conditions, significantly reducing long-term ecological impact. Because the material is plant-derived, biodegradable, and potentially edible, it could be particularly valuable for food packaging applications, reducing reliance on synthetic coatings or chemical additives. Its ability to be heat-sealed also suggests compatibility with existing industrial packaging processes, which could make large-scale adoption more feasible. 7. Challenges, Future Directions, and Overall Significance Despite its promise, several challenges remain before chañar brea gum films can be widely commercialized. Scaling up sustainable gum production, ensuring consistent film quality across batches, evaluating long-term storage stability, and assessing cost competitiveness compared with conventional plastics are all important issues that require further investigation. Nevertheless, the current study provides a robust scientific foundation for future development and optimization by clarifying how processing conditions, material structure, and performance are interrelated in this novel biopolymer-based film. Overall, this research demonstrates that chañar brea gum is more than a natural tree exudate: it is a functional material with real potential for sustainable packaging. By systematically examining its thermal, mechanical, barrier, and heat-sealing properties, the study offers valuable insights for the design of next-generation biodegradable packaging systems. As industries continue to seek alternatives to conventional plastics, materials such as chañar brea gum represent an important step toward a more sustainable and circular packaging future. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Heat-Sealing Process for Chañar Brea Gum Films".
Blog 19 Jan 2026
encyclopedia>
Community Content
How Do You Promote Your Research After Publication?
For many researchers, the acceptance and publication of a paper feels like the culmination of their work. However, this often leads to a critical oversight: failing to ensure the research reaches and resonates with its intended audience. The post-publication phase plays a critical role in increasing the visibility of research, improving accessibility for diverse audiences, facilitating understanding across disciplines, and extending influence beyond traditional citations to societal and interdisciplinary domains. Post-publication promotion is not simply an optional addition to the researcher's toolkit; it is a fundamental component of their scholarly responsibility and a critical driver of their work’s ultimate significance and reach 1. Here are practical tips and ideas for effectively promoting your article: 1. Multimedia and Visual Communication Multimedia formats lower cognitive barriers and make research more engaging, memorable, and widely shareable across both academic and public channels. Create a Video Abstract A video abstract is a short, two-to-five-minute visual summary of your paper that introduces the background, methods, key findings, and implications using narration, imagery, and simple text 2. User-behavior research on YouTube indicates that although Entertainment and Music dominate overall searches, Science and Technology content remains among the top trending categories 3, suggesting strong public interest in science delivered through video. Evidence also shows that papers accompanied by video abstracts tend to perform better: citation rates may increase by around 15%, article views by about 35%, and Altmetric Attention Scores by roughly 25% 4. These improvements reflect how much easier it is for broader audiences to discover, understand, and share research when a video version is available. What's more, animated video abstracts can extend this impact even further, helping authors increase visibility and reach wider communities on social media 5. Source: Encyclopedia Academic Video Service (https://encyclopedia.pub/video/1623) Develop Infographics Infographics provide clear, visual summaries of complex findings, enabling quick comprehension and making them ideal for academic communication, public outreach, presentations, and social media. Research shows that infographic articles generate significantly greater social media attention and achieve higher Altmetric scores than standard original research articles, underscoring their value in enhancing research visibility 6. Encyclopedia has launched the Scientific Infographic Service to support researchers in presenting complex scientific findings through clear and professionally prepared visual summaries. The service is now open for applications and is provided free of charge. Source: Encyclopedia Scientific Inforgraphic (https://encyclopedia.pub/image/3584​) 2. Scholarly Platform Dissemination Leveraging academic platforms strengthens the discoverability, traceability, and early visibility of your research within global scholarly ecosystems. Maintaining an active, well-curated presence across these channels ensures that your work is easy to find, share, and cite. Maintain academic profiles on platforms such as SciProfiles, ResearchGate, Academia, Google Scholar, Kudos, The Conversation, and Researchmap. These profiles allow you to upload your article or accepted manuscript and provide concise, accessible summaries that broaden academic reach and engagement. Register for an ORCID iD and link your publications to ensure accurate author identification and consistent visibility across publishers, indexing services, and research databases. Release a preprint on platforms such as Preprints to accelerate dissemination and invite early community engagement. Releasing a preprint is associated with a significant positive citation advantage of approximately 20.2% 7. Create a scientific entry on the Encyclopedia platform to present your findings in an authoritative, structured format that enhances clarity, accessibility, and long-term discoverability. 3. Social and Public Engagement Public and social networks extend your research reach beyond traditional academic communities, enabling broader conversations and greater societal impact. Share your work on social platforms such as X (formerly Twitter), LinkedIn, Facebook, WeChat, and Weibo. These channels help spark discussion, increase awareness, and attract attention from journalists, policymakers, practitioners, and interdisciplinary audiences. Make access easy by providing shareable links. Send your article directly to colleagues, add the link to your email signature, and update personal, laboratory, or institutional webpages with the article title and permanent link. Write blog posts that highlight your key findings, explain their significance, and discuss broader implications. Blogs make your research accessible to non-experts and support broader engagement. Including a link to your published article further enhances visibility and citation potential. You can also publish blog posts on the Encyclopedia platform to reach an even wider readership. 4. Conferences and Scholarly Exchange Active participation in academic conferences broadens your research visibility and helps you establish meaningful professional connections. Presenting your work—whether at in-person meetings or online sessions—allows you to share findings with informed audiences, receive constructive feedback, and spark new collaborations. Joining international events, including those hosted on platforms such as Sciforum, further expands your reach across regions and disciplines. These interactions often lead to new partnerships, fresh research ideas, and additional academic opportunities. References 1. Ratten, V.; Lux, A.; Merkle, T. Tips from management editors: Managing your academic reputation, post-publication promotion and building your network. J. Manag. Organ. 2025, 31, 1-6. 2. Spicer, S. Exploring Video Abstracts in Science Journals: An Overview and Case Study. J. Librariansh. Sch. Commun. 2014, 2, eP1110. 3. Dubovi, I.; Tabak, I. Interactions between emotional and cognitive engagement with science on YouTube. Public Underst Sci. 2021, 30, 759-776. 4. Bonnevie, T.; Repel, A.; Gravier, F.E.; et al. Video abstracts are associated with an increase in research reports citations, views and social attention: a cross-sectional study. Scientometrics 2023, 128, 3001–3015. 5. Erskine, N.; Hendricks, S. What is the effect of posting video abstracts on journal article impact? J. Vis. Commun. Med. 2024, 47, 47–55. 6. Kunze, K.N.; Vadhera, A.; Purbey, R.; Singh, H.; Kazarian, G.S.; Chahla, J. Infographics Are More Effective at Increasing Social Media Attention in Comparison With Original Research Articles: An Altmetrics-Based Analysis. Arthroscopy 2021, 37, 2591-2597. 7. Colavizza, G.; Cadwallader, L.; LaFlamme, M,; Dozot, G.; Lecorney, S.; Rappo, D. Hrynaszkiewicz I. An analysis of the effects of sharing research data, code, and preprints on citations. PLoS One. 2024, 19, e0311493.
Blog 12 Jan 2026
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
When Behavior Speaks: Tracking Dairy Cow Behavior on Farms
Cows communicate a great deal through their behavior. Subtle changes in standing, lying, feeding, or social interactions often provide early indicators of health status, stress levels, or reproductive activity. In modern dairy systems, where herd sizes continue to increase, continuous manual observation is neither efficient nor reliable. Consequently, automated behavior monitoring has become a key component of precision livestock farming. Vision-based behavior recognition offers a non-invasive and scalable solution; however, its practical implementation remains challenging. Variability in posture, lighting conditions, background complexity, and animal density can significantly affect detection performance. A recent study published in MDPI Animals entitled "CAMLLA-YOLOv8n: Cow Behavior Recognition Based on Improved YOLOv8n" addresses these challenges by proposing an improved YOLOv8-based framework for recognizing Holstein cow behaviors in real farm environments. By refining feature representation, attention mechanisms, and localization strategies, the study aims to enhance robustness under practical on-farm conditions. 1. Visual Challenges in On-Farm Cow Behavior Recognition Recognizing cow behavior from visual data in real farm environments is inherently complex. Multiple cows frequently appear within the same field of view, leading to overlap and occlusion that obscure key anatomical features. In addition, behaviors are associated with distinct postural patterns, yet substantial variability exists within each behavior category due to individual differences and environmental influences. Detection is further complicated by changes in apparent cow size caused by varying camera distances, as well as fluctuations in lighting and background elements throughout the day. In many cases, behavior-related visual cues are small, subtle, or only partially visible, particularly during brief interactions or transitional movements. Together, these factors limit the effectiveness of standard object detection architectures when applied directly to farm imagery. 2. Model Design and Methodological Improvements To address these challenges, the study introduces a series of targeted architectural and methodological refinements to the YOLOv8n model. Rather than increasing model complexity, the proposed approach focuses on enhancing feature discrimination, strengthening multi-scale representation, and improving bounding box regression. This design strategy maintains computational efficiency while improving suitability for real-world deployment. 3. Data Augmentation Strategy A hybrid data augmentation strategy was applied to increase the diversity of training samples. Variations in posture, scale, orientation, and environmental conditions were introduced to better reflect the visual complexity of real farm scenes. This approach improves generalization and reduces sensitivity to changes in camera placement, barn layout, and herd composition. 4. C2f-CA Module with Coordinate Attention Within the backbone network, a Coordinate Attention mechanism was integrated into the C2f module, forming the C2f-CA structure. This mechanism encodes spatial position information alongside channel-wise dependencies, allowing the model to retain location awareness while emphasizing behavior-relevant features. As a result, the model more effectively distinguishes individual cows in crowded scenes and suppresses background interference. This is particularly beneficial in multi-cow environments where visual overlap is common. 5. MLLAttention in the Neck for Multi-Scale Feature Fusion To address scale variation among detected targets, the MLLAttention mechanism was introduced into the P3, P4, and P5 layers of the Neck component. These layers integrate features across multiple spatial resolutions. By improving attention-driven feature fusion, the model maintains consistent recognition performance for cows appearing at different distances from the camera, which is a common scenario in open or semi-open farm settings. 6. SPPF-GPE Module for Small Target Enhancement The standard SPPF module was further refined into the SPPF-GPE module by combining global average pooling and global maximum pooling. This modification enhances the extraction of both global context and localized salient features. Improved sensitivity to small or partially occluded targets supports more reliable detection of subtle behavioral cues, which are often critical for early behavioral assessment. 7. Shape-IoU Loss for Improved Localization Accuracy For bounding box regression, the study replaces CIoU loss with Shape-IoU loss, placing greater emphasis on matching the shape and scale of predicted and ground-truth bounding boxes. This adjustment improves localization accuracy in crowded scenes and reduces errors caused by overlapping targets, thereby supporting more reliable behavior recognition. 8. Experimental Validation The proposed CAMLLA-YOLOv8n model was evaluated using a self-constructed dataset comprising 23,073 annotated instances of Holstein cow behaviors. Experimental results show that the improved model achieves higher Precision than earlier YOLO-based approaches. These findings demonstrate that the combined use of attention mechanisms, improved feature fusion, and optimized loss design can enhance detection performance under realistic farm conditions without substantially increasing computational cost. 9. Implications for Precision Livestock Farming The study highlights the practical value of advanced vision-based behavior recognition systems in dairy farming. Improved detection accuracy enables earlier identification of health-related behavioral changes, more reliable monitoring of estrus and reproductive activity, and reduced reliance on manual observation. Such systems support data-driven herd management, contribute to improved animal welfare, and promote more efficient and sustainable farming practices. 10. Conclusion Accurate recognition of cow behavior is essential for modern precision livestock farming. By introducing targeted structural improvements to the YOLOv8n framework, this study provides an effective and application-oriented solution for behavior detection in complex agricultural environments. As visual monitoring technologies continue to evolve, approaches that balance methodological rigor, robustness, and practical deployability will play an increasingly important role in the digital transformation of animal husbandry. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "CAMLLA-YOLOv8n: Cow Behavior Recognition Based on Improved YOLOv8n".
Blog 06 Jan 2026
encyclopedia>
Community Content
Increasing the Odds that a Journal Will Accept Your Paper
As an Editor-in-Chief of two earth science journals over the past three decades, several thousand submissions have crossed my desk. I am still surprised and dismayed that so many authors set themselves up for rejection from editors simply because they fail to follow what I will call “publishing rules”. Leading journals typically reject the majority of submissions they receive (the best journals reject as many as 90+% of their submissions); thus, the competition for journal space is severe and authors cannot afford to ignore basic rules. 1. Purpose As a service to aspiring authors, especially those with limited publishing experience, I respectfully submit this set of “dos” and “don’ts” to increase the odds they will receive a favorable decision. My list reflects an editor’s perspective and these recommendations are based on my experience over the past five years as Editor-in-Chief of a journal that receives about 4500 submissions per year, as well as a record of having published over 400 peer-reviewed journal papers. With my ‘editorial hat on’, I can generally reach a decision on a submission’s acceptability following an initial brief appraisal based on a handful of criteria (see below). About 70–85% of them will not survive external review, which thus accounts for my journal’s high desk-rejection rate. I preface my guidelines by pointing out that a good Editor-in-Chief serves two “clients”. Their primary client is the journal’s publisher, but an important secondary client is the authors themselves. While ensuring that a journal publishes high-quality science, editors also provide advice to aspiring authors. 2. Criteria An Editor Uses to Evaluate Manuscripts So, what criteria do I use to make the ‘do-or-die’ decision to either desk-reject a paper or to send it out for external review? Here are the criteria, based on a series of questions, that I and many of my colleagues use to make this fundamental decision: 2.1. Does the Science Appear to be Sound? First and foremost, I ask myself: Does the science appear to be sound? Of course, there is not an editor on Earth who can evaluate the full range of science published in a journal; thus, I have to be cautious. When in doubt, I defer to a pool of Associate Editors or other colleagues. However, I do this only when I find that the following questions are satisfactorily addressed. 2.2. Is the Submitted Paper within the Scope of the Journal? Second, I ask myself: Is the submitted paper within the scope of my journal? Are there more appropriate journals than my journal for the paper? I continue to be amazed at how many papers are submitted to a journal that is not the best choice; many of these submissions are not even in my journal’s remit. If I find that authors have missed their targeted audience, I reject their submission, although I generally recommend more appropriate journals in my decision letter. Of course, such decisions might involve judgment calls, as many papers are at the perimeter of a specific journal’s scope. However, top-tier journals typically have limited capacity, even in the electronic world in which we now live, and thus are forced to triage submissions according to topic. With an average of 13 incoming submissions per day in the case of my journal, I have to make some hard decisions about their suitability. With these comments in mind, authors should very carefully review the on-line scopes of journals that they are considering for submission in order to ensure that they choose the most appropriate one. 2.3. Does the Paper Advance Science? The next question I ask myself is: Does the paper advance science? Or put differently, does it have some novelty? If the answer is yes, the paper will likely interest my journal’s readers and will thus be seen to be relevant and more likely to be cited by peers. If the answer to either of these questions is no, authors should choose a lower-tier journal that does not penalize what might be labelled a “case study” of limited interest to readers. Bear in mind that journals “live and die” on citation metrics, for example, CiteScores. Of course, scholars favor submitting their best work to journals with high citation metrics, but they also have to be realistic about the quality and potential impact of their work. To deal with this issue, authors should always explain their submission’s contribution to science in the Introduction and Discussion sections of their paper. It is in those sections they can answer the question: “Why should you, the reader, care about my paper?” 2.4. Is the Paper Well-Prepared? The fourth set of questions I ask of myself include the following: Is the writing clear? Has the manuscript been critiqued by all co-authors? And has it also been reviewed by colleagues who can provide advice on the structure and clarity of the writing? This is not solely an issue for non-native English speakers; it applies to all authors, including native English speakers. Related to this, there is no excuse for failing to perform a spell check prior to submission. I am stunned by the number of submissions to my journal that are poorly structured and grammatically flawed. It may be a bias on my part, but a carelessly prepared paper is also likely to be scientifically flawed. Here are many suggestions for authors to follow to prevent an editor from “hitting the reject button” on the basis of flawed writing: Rigorously follow the journal’s submission guidelines to ensure that the paper is properly formatted. If you are an inexperienced author, structure your manuscript using traditional section headings (Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Conclusion, References). Prior to submission, have your paper carefully reviewed by your co-authors and by trusted colleagues who have not been involved in the study. Review the draft paper several times yourself, allowing yourself adequate time (days or weeks) between reviews. Use spell check and AI to polish the English, but remember that using AI to write a paper is a breach of scientific ethics. 2.5. Is the Introduction Appropriate for a Scientific Paper? My fifth question: Is the Introduction appropriate for a scientific paper? The Introduction is not an appropriate place for a literature review. Literature reviews are suitable in theses and reports, but typically not in scientific papers. The appropriate literature can be cited in the Introduction to provide context for the topic of the paper and is clearly required in a Discussion before the Conclusions. An Introduction provides the reader with an understanding of the core questions or the problem that the paper is addressing and how the paper advances science. 2.6. Is There a Discussion Section After the Results? My sixth set of evaluation questions: Is there a Discussion section after the Results? Are the results and the discussion separated? The lack of a stand-alone Discussion section indicates to me that the paper is likely a case study with limited generality and a small pool of interested readers. The mixing of results and discussion is a scientific ‘no-no’. The results and discussion should be clearly separated because the former presumably can be replicated by other scientists, whereas the latter is more subjective and typically presents the authors’ view of the broader implications of their work. I still am amazed that authors fail to understand this difference by including sections titled ‘Results and Discussion’. 2.7. Are The References Cited in the Paper Appropriate? A final question that I ask when evaluating a manuscript relates to the references cited in the paper: Is the pertinent literature, including papers and sources published in the past several years, cited? If not, I will wonder if the authors are up to date on the topic of their paper. I also search for evidence of over-citation of the authors’ own work. 3. Final Tips Here are some final tips for prospective authors: Include line numbers on journal submissions and double-space the manuscripts. Minimize the use of acronyms and avoid them completely in article titles. Ensure that the font size of all words in figures is large enough to be legible to a reader. Scale the font size of the print to the size of the figure. Respect stated journal length limits. If in doubt, ask the editor whether a manuscript that is longer than the journal’s maximum length is acceptable for your submission. Do not include the study area in a heading under the title ‘Methods and Study Area”. The two are very different. Biography John Clague is Emeritus Professor at Simon Fraser University. He was a Research Scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada from 1975 until 1998, prior to accepting an appointment as Canada Research Chair at Simon Fraser University, a position he held until 2016. Clague is a leading authority in environmental earth sciences, natural hazards, and climate change. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and an Officer of the Order of Canada. He has served as Editor-in-Chief of the journal Natural Hazards since 2021, and before that he was Editor-in-Chief of the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences.
Blog 29 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
How Can Sanitation Sustainability Be Measured? Insights from Hashemi's Sanitation Sustainability Index
In many regions worldwide, sanitation systems play a decisive yet often overlooked role in public health, environmental protection, and social well-being. Selecting an appropriate sanitation solution is therefore not only a technical challenge but also a social and economic one. A study published in MDPI Sustainability, entitled "Sanitation Sustainability Index: A Pilot Approach to Develop a Community-Based Indicator for Evaluating Sustainability of Sanitation Systems" introduces a community-based framework for evaluating sanitation options prior to implementation. By integrating technical, economic, and social dimensions into a single composite indicator, the Hashemi’s Sanitation Sustainability Index (HSSI) offers a structured and context-sensitive approach to supporting informed sanitation planning in alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 6. 1. The Rationale for a Sustainability-Based Assessment Framework Sanitation interventions frequently encounter challenges not solely due to technical limitations but because economic feasibility and social acceptance are insufficiently considered during the planning stage. Systems that perform well from an engineering perspective may impose unsustainable financial burdens or conflict with local cultural practices. Conversely, low-cost solutions may fail to adequately protect public health or the environment. The HSSI was developed to address these limitations by providing a pre-implementation evaluation framework that integrates technical, economic, and social dimensions of sustainability. By enabling direct comparison among alternative sanitation technologies, the index supports informed decision-making and reduces the risk of system failure following deployment. 2. Structure of Hashemi's Sanitation Sustainability Index The HSSI comprises three sub-indices—technical, economic, and social—each consisting of normalized, dimensionless variables. This normalization ensures that the index is adaptable to local conditions and applicable across diverse geographic and socio-economic contexts. Technical Sustainability The technical sub-index evaluates the efficiency with which sanitation systems utilize resources and manage waste streams. It includes three primary indicators: Water Efficiency, which assesses water consumption per sanitation event relative to community standards; Energy Efficiency, which evaluates the energy requirements for wastewater treatment processes; Waste Recycling Efficiency, which measures the proportion of waste that is safely recovered and reused. These indicators are calculated using straightforward comparative equations that benchmark proposed systems against existing local practices, thereby facilitating transparent and meaningful comparisons among different sanitation technologies. 3. Economic Sustainability Economic viability is a critical determinant of the long-term success of sanitation systems, particularly in low-income and resource-constrained settings. The economic sub-index includes: Capital Cost Index, reflecting initial investment requirements; Maintenance Cost Index, capturing long-term operational and maintenance expenses; Direct Economic Benefits, accounting for potential revenue generation, such as the recovery of nutrients or energy. Sanitation systems that demonstrate cost-effectiveness or generate tangible economic benefits receive higher scores, highlighting options that are more likely to be financially sustainable over time. 4. Social Sustainability The social sub-index addresses human and behavioral dimensions that strongly influence sanitation system performance. It incorporates two key variables: Acceptability, which evaluates alignment with cultural norms, user preferences, and community perceptions; Public Health Impact, which assesses the system’s effectiveness in improving hygiene and reducing disease transmission. Although these indicators are qualitative in nature, they are quantified through structured surveys, pilot studies, and standardized scoring methods, ensuring consistency and comparability across assessments. 5. Application and Validation: A Case Study from South Korea The applicability of the HSSI was demonstrated through a comparative assessment of two sanitation systems implemented in a suburban area of Seoul, South Korea: a conventional septic tank system and a resource-oriented sanitation (ROS) system. The findings indicate that the ROS system achieved a substantially higher overall HSSI score (0.71) than the septic tank system (0.42). This outcome was primarily attributable to the ROS system’s superior performance in waste recycling and its potential to generate economic benefits, despite exhibiting lower levels of social acceptability. To assess the robustness of the index, the authors employed Monte Carlo simulations to estimate the statistical distribution of HSSI scores. The results confirmed that the calculated values fell within a 95 percent confidence interval, supporting the reliability and stability of the index. 6. Implications for Policy and Practice A key strength of the HSSI lies in its adaptability. The index can be applied across a wide range of spatial and institutional scales, including rural communities, urban informal settlements, and regional or national sanitation planning initiatives, provided that context-specific data are available. By emphasizing simplicity, flexibility, and pre-implementation assessment, the HSSI serves as a practical decision-support tool for policymakers, engineers, and development organizations seeking to identify sanitation systems that are not only technically sound but also economically viable and socially acceptable. 7. Concluding Remarks Hashemi’s Sanitation Sustainability Index provides a structured and integrative framework for evaluating sanitation systems through a sustainability lens. By systematically incorporating technical, economic, and social dimensions, the index facilitates transparent and evidence-based decision-making. As global efforts continue toward achieving universal access to safe and sustainable sanitation under SDG 6, tools such as the HSSI are expected to play an increasingly important role in guiding investments and ensuring that sanitation solutions are resilient, context-appropriate, and sustainable in the long term. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Hashemi's Sanitation Sustainability Index (HSSI)".
Blog 23 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Platform Feature
Video Abstract: A New Visual Medium for Scholarly Communication
As digital publishing technology continuously innovates and multimodal communication becomes the mainstream trend, the way research findings are presented is quietly transforming. For a long time, the text-based abstract has been the core component of a research paper, serving as the primary gateway for peers to understand a study's content. However, with the deepening of interdisciplinary integration and the growing demand for public science communication, the limitations of pure text in conveying complex scientific information are becoming increasingly apparent. Enter the Video Abstract—a "new language" for scientific communication that supplements textual expression with dynamic visuals. This format combines academic rigor with visual storytelling power and is playing a significant role in the international academic publishing landscape. 1. What Is a Video Abstract? A video abstract is not a simple compilation of lab footage or promotional clips. It is a short video, typically crafted by researchers or professional teams based on formal research outputs, that distills the core information of a study. By leveraging visual language and multimodal presentation, it makes the complex logic, data, and structure within a paper "understandable and memorable," transforming research achievements from readable text into a visual communication medium. Figure 1: Biochar and Mulch: Hydrologic, Erosive, and Phytotoxic Responses Across Different Application Strategies and Agricultural Soils. Produced by MDPI Academic Video Service.  Video abstracts typically share several defining features: High Content Focus: Precisely refining he research question, methodology, key results, and academic value. Clear Logical Reconstruction: Organizing information according to a scientific narrative, such as "Problem → Methods → Key Findings," presenting the research logic visually. Diverse Expressive Forms: Combining various media such as live filming, animation, 3D modeling, data visualization, and voiceover narration to enhance information delivery efficiency. Academic Rigor Meets Accessibility: Presenting key academic details (methods, sample sizes, statistical approaches) while using dynamic charts, analogies, and other techniques to lower the barrier to understanding. Appropriate Length: Usually 2 to 5 minutes long, facilitating cross-platform dissemination and quick comprehension. Visual Extension of the Paper: Supplementing aspects that are difficult to convey in a text abstract, such as experimental procedures, structural changes, or model construction. Some journals now support bidirectional linking between the video abstract and the paper's DOI, creating a dissemination chain from quick video overview to in-depth paper reading. 2. Why Are Video Abstracts Needed? While textual abstracts aim for precision and concision, their communicative capacity is restricted by format constraints, specialized terminology, and the cognitive effort required of readers. Video abstracts address these challenges by introducing richer expressive modalities that facilitate understanding, broaden audiences, and strengthen research visibility. 2.1. Expanding the Expressive Capacity of Text Abstracts Static text is inherently limited in describing dynamic or multidimensional processes. Complex workflows, temporal patterns, or structural transitions are often only partially interpretable through language alone. Video abstracts overcome these constraints by presenting such elements directly through sequential imagery, animation, or live action footage, thereby providing audiences with a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the research. 2.2. Supporting Layered and Cross Audience Dissemination The specialized vocabulary characteristic of many textual abstracts can impede comprehension for non-specialist or interdisciplinary audiences. Video abstracts allow the level of explanation to be adapted for different viewers: For disciplinary peers: Focus on experimental design and analytical rigor. For interdisciplinary researchers: Use of visual analogies to clarify mechanisms. For broader audiences: Highlighting societal relevance and potential applications. This layered communication model enables research to circulate more widely while maintaining accuracy and scholarly integrity. 2.3. Enhancing Efficiency in an Attention-Constrained Environment In today’s information-saturated environment, even a short textual abstract demands concentrated reading. By contrast, a two-minute video abstract presents the core message—research question, methodology, and key results—through intuitive visuals and narration. This delivers high information density with reduced cognitive load, enabling audiences to quickly comprehend and retain essential findings. In this way, research becomes not only documented but genuinely communicative, overcoming traditional dissemination barriers. 2.4. Increasing Research Impact Through Multi-Platform Circulation Video abstracts effectively bridge the gap between specialized and public audiences. They can be seamlessly integrated into academic ecosystems—such as journal websites, ResearchGate, and Figshare—while also being repurposed into concise science communication clips for platforms like YouTube, Bilibili, and TikTok. This enables a powerful dual-cycle model of internal academic dissemination and external public engagement. 3. Video Abstract: Advancing Scientific Expression Video abstracts are not intended to replace textual summaries. Rather, they function as a complementary medium that broadens the communicative reach of scholarly work. They facilitate a transition From comprehension through text to comprehension through visual presentation; From being merely discoverable to leaving a lasting impression; From circulation within academic circles to engagement with broader audiences. For researchers, a video abstract serves as a form of visual scholarly signature that enhances the visibility, traceability, and communicability of their work. As expectations for research impact and outreach continue to grow, video abstracts represent a significant step toward a more visual, accessible, and technologically enabled scholarly publishing environment. The Academic Video Service offered by Encyclopedia, an MDPI initiative, provides comprehensive support for video abstract creation, including script development, animation, native voiceover, and multi-platform dissemination. The service establishes a bidirectional DOI linking system, enabling video abstracts to be embedded directly within journal article pages and thereby strengthening both discoverability and research impact. For further information or collaboration inquiries, please visit https://encyclopedia.pub/video_service. If you have any other questions, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
Blog 16 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Ongoing
Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic Service is Now Open for Application
We are pleased to announce the launch of the Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic Service, created to help researchers transform complex scientific findings into clear, engaging, and professionally designed visual narratives. This service is entirely free of charge and aims to enhance the readability, visibility, and overall impact of your research. 1. What Are Academic Infographics? Academic infographics visually present key data, major findings, experimental workflows, and conceptual models in a structured, concise, and accessible format. Research shows that infographic articles generate significantly greater social media attention and achieve higher Altmetric scores than standard original research articles, underscoring their value in enhancing research visibility. High-quality infographics can: Communicate the core message of your research quickly and effectively. Improve presentation quality and visual appeal. Lower the barrier for interdisciplinary understanding. Facilitate broader dissemination across both academic and public audiences. 2. Who Can Benefit from This Service？ This service is available to researchers across all academic disciplines.Typical use cases include: Post-publication promotion of journal articles. Conference presentations (oral sessions, posters, booth displays). Grant proposals, mid-term project reports, and research summaries. Teaching materials and public science communication. Social media dissemination and institutional outreach. 3. Why Choose Encyclopedia Infographic Service? Our service provides: Professional production by a dedicated academic design team. Native English editing to ensure accurate and polished content. Consistent visual standards using copyright-safe materials. One complimentary round of revisions. Designs optimized for journals, conferences, and social media platforms. 4. How to Apply To apply for the Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic Service, please visit https://encyclopedia.pub/user/image/infographics and submit the following information: Manuscript DOI/Link (Optional) Image Notes (Required) Upload Materials (Optional; supported formats: zip, rar; file size: 1 KB–300 MB) 5. Encyclopedia Scientific Infographics Example Neovascular eye diseases—can pharmacotherapy and nutraceuticals make a difference? From cutting-edge drug therapies to the potential of nutraceuticals, this infographic explores innovative approaches to tackling abnormal blood vessel growth in the eye. Experts Dario Rusciano and Paola Bagnoli break down the insights into treatment strategies. Source: Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic (https://encyclopedia.pub/image/3247) If you want to see more infographic examples, please visit: https://encyclopedia.pub/image_gallery/6. 6. Contact Email: office@encyclopedia.pub Homepage: https://encyclopedia.pub QR code:
Announcement 10 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
When Heritage Meets Biophilic Design: Evaluating Southern Morocco’s Vernacular Buildings
In southern Morocco, architecture does more than provide shelter; it encodes centuries of adaptation to climate, culture, and landscape. The earthen Kasbahs and Ksour of Ouarzazate Province—long recognized for their historical and architectural value—offer a particularly compelling case.  A study published in MDPI Sustainability, titled “Characterizing Sustainability and Assessing Biophilic Design in Vernacular Architecture: Case of Kasbahs and Ksour in South of Morocco,” argues that these fortified vernacular structures hold important insights for contemporary discussions on biophilic and sustainable architecture. Using a Biophilic Interior Design Matrix composed of 54 attributes, the authors systematically evaluated eleven representative buildings and demonstrate that these historic forms incorporate environmental responsiveness, human–nature connection, and material intelligence in ways that resonate strongly with modern sustainability frameworks. Source: Encyclopedia Video abstract (https://encyclopedia.pub/video/1742). 1. Biophilic Design as an Analytical Lens Biophilic design, grounded in the biophilia hypothesis, emphasizes the integration of natural elements, processes, and patterns into built environments in order to enhance psychological well-being, physical comfort, and cognitive performance. In contemporary practice, biophilic strategies often rely on engineered systems—such as advanced daylighting solutions, vegetated surfaces, or controlled ventilation—to restore connections with natural processes that are frequently diminished in dense urban settings. The case study from Ouarzazate applies this framework to eleven heritage buildings, examining how their material composition, spatial organization, and environmental behavior correspond to biophilic attributes. By translating vernacular characteristics into measurable indicators, the authors show that traditional structures can provide relevant insights for present-day design challenges, particularly in arid and semi-arid contexts. 2. Materiality and Environmental Integration A central finding of the study concerns the predominance of earth-based construction, including rammed earth, adobe, and stone. These locally sourced materials, characterized by low embodied energy, perform strongly across several biophilic categories, especially those related to tactile richness, natural analogues, and integration with the surrounding landscape. Their thermal mass helps maintain interior comfort by moderating diurnal temperature fluctuations, thereby reducing dependence on mechanical systems. The resultant interiors exhibit a high degree of environmental coherence: surfaces, textures, and colors reflect the desert ecology from which the buildings arise. This material continuity aligns closely with core biophilic attributes focused on sensory connection and place-based identity. 3. Spatial Configuration and Climatic Responsiveness Vernacular spatial strategies further reinforce biophilic qualities. The compact urban fabric of Ksour, narrow passageways, shaded transitional zones, and internal courtyards collectively produce environments responsive to strong solar exposure, seasonal climatic variability, and local circulation patterns. According to the study’s findings, these spatial typologies correspond to biophilic attributes involving: dynamic natural lighting shade and thermal refuge coherent spatial order human scale and enclosure perceptible environmental processes Rather than relying on modern technologies, these buildings achieve environmental regulation through form, orientation, and passive strategies refined over generations. 4. Sustainability Embedded in Vernacular Practice Although traditional builders of Kasbahs and Ksour did not articulate sustainability as a conscious design agenda, the study shows that sustainable practices are embedded throughout their construction and use. Local materials minimize environmental impact; passive thermal strategies reduce energy demands; and building forms are finely tuned to climatic and ecological conditions. This integration of cultural, material, and environmental knowledge contrasts with many contemporary approaches that attempt to retrofit sustainability into existing design systems. The authors argue that vernacular Moroccan architecture exemplifies a holistic approach in which human comfort, resource efficiency, and environmental responsiveness operate in mutually reinforcing ways. 5. Implications for Contemporary Architecture The study's findings carry broader implications for architectural practice, particularly in regions confronting climate stress or resource limitations. Several insights emerge: Vernacular architecture can serve as a repository of environmental intelligence, offering precedents for low-energy, context-appropriate strategies. Biophilic qualities may already be embedded in traditional structures, even if not defined as such, providing instructive examples for contemporary application. Sustainability may be strengthened by cultural continuity, linking material practice to identity, place, and ecological understanding. The Kasbahs and Ksour therefore encourage architects to consider how traditional building knowledge can inform modern biophilic and sustainable design frameworks rather than exist apart from them. 6. Conclusion: Learning from Vernacular Ecologies The study concludes that the Kasbahs and Ksour of the Ouarzazate Province are significant not only for their cultural heritage but also for their environmental adaptability and human-centered design logic. By applying the Biophilic Interior Design Matrix, the authors demonstrate that many features of these vernacular structures naturally align with the objectives of biophilic and sustainable design. As societies confront climate change, increasing energy pressures, and a growing disconnect from natural environments, the lessons embedded in Morocco’s vernacular landscapes gain renewed relevance. These buildings illustrate how environmental adaptation, material stewardship, and human well-being can reinforce one another within integrated architectural systems. In this way, the study of Kasbahs and Ksour extends beyond historical inquiry; it offers a forward-looking model for sustainable design. Re-engaging with vernacular knowledge may help the built environment evolve toward approaches that are both technically resilient and culturally grounded. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Sustainability and Biophilic Design in Vernacular Architecture: Morocco".
Blog 05 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
What ESG Reporting Reveals About Sustainability Progress in Major U.S. Airports
Airports are more than transport hubs; they are major local employers, energy users, and land managers whose operations intersect with climate, public health, and equity concerns. As investors, communities, regulators, and travellers pay greater attention to environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance, airports face both opportunities and questions about how to report sustainability credibly. A study published in MDPI Sustainability "Environmental Social Governance (ESG) Reporting for Large US Airports" examined ESG reporting across the 30 large-hub U.S. airports, contrasted reporting frameworks, and offered detailed case studies of Salt Lake City (SLC) and Dallas–Fort Worth (DFW). Its central conclusion: reporting is growing, but practices remain uneven and largely voluntary — which limits comparability, accountability, and potential regulatory clarity. Source: Encyclopedia Video abstract (https://encyclopedia.pub/video/1737). 1. ESG Reporting Practices and Current Gaps The study confirms that all 30 large-hub airports in the United States publish some form of sustainability-related information. This may take the form of sustainability reports, topic-specific documents, or web-based summaries. However, only eight of these airports produce a formal report explicitly labelled as ESG. This demonstrates that while sustainability communication is widespread, ESG-specific reporting remains limited. The analysis shows substantial variation in the reporting frameworks adopted by airports. Some airports reference guidance from organizations such as Airports Council International (ACI) or the World Economic Forum (WEF), whereas others rely on general sustainability standards or develop customized reporting structures. Because these approaches differ in scope and terminology, the resulting disclosures are not easily comparable, and many recommended elements appear only partially addressed across the sample. Through two case studies — Salt Lake City International Airport (SLC) and Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) — the paper illustrates what more structured ESG reporting can look like. Both airports reference the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and make efforts to align environmental, social, and governance disclosures with these global frameworks. Their reports include data on energy and resource use, greenhouse gas emissions (Scopes 1 and 2, with partial Scope 3), waste and water management, workforce composition, and governance practices. Even so, the study notes that reporting gaps persist. Not all of the recommended disclosure elements are consistently covered, historical data are sometimes missing, and several disclosures remain primarily qualitative. Additionally, because airports vary widely in size, governance structure, and operational context, the authors caution that standardization must remain flexible, even while comparability remains a core challenge. 2. Why ESG Reporting Matters The authors identify several advantages associated with stronger ESG reporting at airports: Transparency and accountability: Clear disclosures allow stakeholders to better understand environmental and social performance. Risk management and regulatory preparedness: Monitoring emissions, resource use, and community impacts strengthens long-term planning. Operational and financial benefits: Reporting can help identify inefficiencies and support more sustainable operations. Community and social engagement: Social-governance indicators help airports demonstrate broader community value. Stakeholder and investor confidence: As ESG reporting becomes more relevant in infrastructure planning and finance, consistent disclosure strengthens credibility. These points reflect the conceptual benefits highlighted by the authors. The paper does not measure quantitative impacts but presents these as recognized motivations for ESG adoption in the aviation sector. 3. Recommendations for Improving ESG Reporting The study offers several guidance points for airports seeking to strengthen ESG transparency: Adopt an appropriate reporting framework.Airports are encouraged to draw on sector-relevant frameworks such as ACI or WEF guidance to avoid fragmented or incomplete disclosures. Report core ESG elements consistently.The authors reference the ACI-NA list of 20 recommended disclosure items across environmental, social, and governance categories. Provide quantitative data and historical trends.Multi-year data series, where available, allow more meaningful evaluation of progress. Align ESG metrics with the UN SDGs where relevant.This helps contextualize sustainability actions in relation to broader global goals. Balance standardization with local context.Because airports differ substantially, a flexible but transparent approach is necessary to maintain both relevance and comparability. These recommendations reflect the paper's emphasis on clarity, structure, and consistency, rather than rigid compliance. 4. Conclusion: ESG Reporting as a Foundation for Sustainable Aviation The study provides a clear picture of ESG reporting across large U.S. airports: sustainability communication is now standard practice, but ESG-specific reporting remains uneven and often lacks methodological consistency. The case studies of SLC and DFW show that more comprehensive and SDG-aligned reporting is achievable, though still incomplete. The authors argue that improving ESG reporting will support better transparency, risk management, and stakeholder engagement. For airports, the challenge ahead is twofold: adopting coherent frameworks and committing to consistent disclosure while preserving the flexibility required by diverse operational contexts. In the broader landscape of sustainable aviation, the paper suggests that ESG reporting is not merely an administrative exercise but a foundational step toward clearer accountability and more informed decision-making. It signals a sector in transition — moving toward more structured reporting, yet still working to build the comparability and completeness needed for meaningful evaluation. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "ESG Reporting for Large US Airports".
Blog 01 Dec 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
From Seed to Seedling: How Early Fungicide Protection Shapes Wheat Health
Wheat may look sturdy as it waves across millions of hectares worldwide, but its earliest weeks of life are surprisingly fragile. Before farmers even see the first true leaves, invisible fungal pathogens may already be gaining ground. Two of the biggest threats—tan spot (Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) and stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici)—can turn what should be a promising crop into a field of losses reaching fifty or even one hundred percent. This vulnerability raises an important question: can we protect wheat before the danger even appears? A recent study published in MDPI Agronomy "Optimizing Fungicide Seed Treatments for Early Foliar Disease Management in Wheat Under Northern Great Plains Conditions" set out to answer precisely this. Conducted across greenhouse, growth chamber, and field conditions in the Northern Great Plains, the research evaluated whether fungicide seed treatments could provide wheat seedlings with an early advantage—reducing disease, enhancing vigor, and ultimately improving yield. Source: Encyclopedia Video abstract (https://encyclopedia.pub/video/1739). 1. Early Disease Suppression: Moderate but Meaningful Experiments conducted across greenhouse, growth chamber, and field environments demonstrate that seed-applied fungicides can reduce early disease severity: Stripe rust severity decreased by approximately 36–42 percent, compared with untreated controls (p ≤ 0.05). Tan spot severity was reduced by about 15–20 percent during early growth stages, depending on the evaluation time point. These reductions are most pronounced when disease pressure appears early, underscoring the value of protection during seedling establishment. 2. Plant Vigor and Winter Survival Improved Beyond disease reduction, seed treatments produced notable physiological benefits: Plant vigor increased by roughly 30–40 percent during early growth. Winter survival improved by 25–50 percent, depending on cultivar and treatment. These improvements are particularly important in the Northern Great Plains, where harsh winters can significantly limit stand establishment and yield potential. 3. Yield and Grain Quality Gains The field results demonstrate that early-season protection can translate into substantial agronomic advantages: Grain yield increased by approximately 25–50 percent across treated plots (p ≤ 0.05). In one late-seeding scenario, plots treated with pyraclostrobin yielded 1,033.3 kg/ha, compared with 563.3 kg/ha in untreated controls. Test weight improved, with treated wheat measuring about 64–66 kg/hL, compared with around 42 kg/hL in untreated plots. Protein content also increased, reaching 12–14 percent in treated plants versus around 11 percent in the control plots. These quality metrics are increasingly important for meeting market standards and maintaining profitability in variable environments. 4. Which Treatments Performed Best? Among the fungicide seed treatments evaluated, pyraclostrobin and thiamethoxam-based combinations consistently delivered the strongest overall performance. These treatments produced reliable reductions in early disease severity, improved seedling vigor, and contributed to higher yield outcomes across greenhouse, growth chamber, and field settings. Their consistency under variable environmental conditions makes them particularly valuable for regions such as the Northern Great Plains, where disease pressure and weather patterns can shift rapidly. Other active ingredients — including difenoconazole, mefenoxam, fludioxonil, and sedaxane — also provided measurable benefits. However, their performance tended to vary depending on disease pressure, soil moisture, temperature, and cultivar response. In several instances, the magnitude of improvement in vigor or disease suppression was less uniform compared to pyraclostrobin or thiamethoxam-based treatments. A notable pattern emerging from the study is that mixed-mode-of-action combinations delivered the most robust results overall. These blends appear to couple early physiological enhancement with pathogen suppression, providing seedlings a competitive advantage during the critical establishment phase. 5. Limitation: Protection Declines as the Plant Matures Despite their clear early-season advantages, the study highlights an important limitation of fungicide seed treatments: their efficacy naturally diminishes as wheat progresses into later developmental stages. Systemic activity decreases over time, and by mid-season, plants typically lack sufficient residual protection to suppress foliar diseases that emerge under high-pressure conditions. Because of this, seed treatments cannot replace in-season foliar fungicide applications, particularly during key growth stages such as stem elongation and heading. They also do not substitute for resistant cultivars or long-term agronomic practices, including rotation and residue management, which are essential for minimizing pathogen buildup in no-till or reduced-till systems. This limitation is biological rather than technological. Seed treatments act primarily at the seed and seedling interface, and once roots and shoots expand beyond the treated zone, the active ingredients dilute and degrade naturally. Recognizing this window of activity is crucial for growers to avoid overreliance on seed treatments as a standalone management tool. 6. A Key Component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Taken together, the findings demonstrate that fungicide seed treatments serve as an effective component of early-season disease management. Their benefits include reduced initial pathogen pressure, stronger and more vigorous seedlings, better overwintering success, and improvements in yield and grain quality. These advantages make seed treatments especially useful in systems where residue-borne inoculum is abundant, such as no-till or minimum-till operations. However, sustainable wheat disease management requires integration rather than dependence on a single strategy. Seed treatments should be deployed alongside cultivars with genetic resistance, timely foliar fungicide applications at disease-critical growth stages, and agronomic practices designed to reduce inoculum carryover. When combined within an IPM framework, these tools provide season-long resilience and reduce the risk of severe outbreaks. The study also identifies clear directions for future research. Multi-year and multi-location trials are needed to further validate treatment consistency across environmental conditions. Additional research should focus on optimizing combinations of seed and foliar fungicides, assessing performance under abiotic stresses such as drought or extreme cold, and evaluating cultivar-specific responses. Economic analyses will also help determine the most cost-effective treatment strategies across diverse production systems. 7. Conclusion Fungicide seed treatments are not a standalone solution — but they are a reliable, evidence-based tool for strengthening wheat performance in the early season. By moderating disease severity, improving vigor, enhancing winter survival, and contributing to yield and grain quality, they help wheat crops establish strong foundations from the start. Within an integrated management framework, seed treatments offer wheat growers in the Northern Great Plains a practical and impactful way to mitigate early-season challenges and protect yield potential in an increasingly unpredictable climate. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Fungicide Optimization for Early Wheat Disease Control".
Blog 25 Nov 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
Who Gets to Save the Planet? The Urgent Case for “Decision Change”
Global crises—from accelerating climate change to biodiversity collapse—are exposing a troubling truth: our institutions are not equipped to respond effectively. Annual UN climate conferences (COPs) and similar forums demonstrate persistent stagnation, despite decades of negotiation. The world lacks not just transformative policies but also the mechanisms to decide how to create them. This is the central insight of the MDPI Sustainability study “Decision Change: The First Step to System Change". The authors argue that before meaningful system change can occur, we need decision change: a transformation of how decisions about system change are made. Source: Encyclopedia Video abstract. (https://encyclopedia.pub/video/1729) 1. Why Current Governance Fails Existing structures face a “meta-coordination problem”: they can manage routine decisions but lack the capacity to decide how to redesign themselves. COPs illustrate this: emissions rise, fossil-fuel reliance persists, and geopolitical interests often outweigh scientific guidance. Previous proposals—citizens’ assemblies, UN reforms, world federalist models—exist, but none provides a legitimate procedure for evaluating and implementing systemic alternatives. Without a “meta-decision structure,” the world is trapped in procedural paralysis. Incremental reforms cannot match the scale or speed of current crises. 2. A Three-Step Programme for Decision Change The study proposes a structured, three-step programme designed to establish a legitimate, ethical, and transparent meta-decision process. Step 1: Independent Experts Design the Procedure Specialists in collective decision-making, institutional design, and procedural engineering—not political negotiators or domain experts—would create the procedure for deciding on system change. Their mandate includes: Diagnosing governance failures. Building safeguards for transparency, resilience, and fairness. Embedding ethical principles and norms. Mitigating conflicts of interest and bias. Oversight bodies ensure methodological rigor and accountability. Crucially, these experts do not decide on system change themselves. Step 2: Broadly Collect System-Change Proposals Once the procedure exists, proposals for transforming governance, economic structures, or crisis-response strategies would be solicited from: Scientific communities. Civil society and indigenous groups. Governments and policy think tanks. Independent experts. Wide participation ensures diversity, credibility, and legitimacy, making eventual decisions more broadly accepted. Step 3: Decide on System Change A separate body applies the designed procedure to evaluate proposals and decide on system change. Auxiliary verification, oversight, and argumentation mechanisms maintain fairness, transparency, and resistance to political capture. This separation prevents technocracy while ensuring robust, legitimate decisions. 3. Strengths and Challenges Strengths Addresses the failure of current governance systems. Embeds ethics, transparency, and procedural fairness. Broad participation enhances legitimacy and acceptance. Encourages innovative solutions often overlooked in traditional politics. Challenges Designing a meta-decision procedure may be contested. Experts may carry implicit biases. Administrative complexity and resistance from vested interests could slow progress. Misperception as technocratic control is a risk. The authors argue that these challenges are manageable with oversight mechanisms and ethical safeguards—and far preferable to continuing under current ineffective systems. 4. Why Decision Change Matters Even well-designed institutions will face public resistance, geopolitical obstacles, and structural inertia. Yet relying on existing governance mechanisms, such as future COPs, to produce systemic transformation is increasingly unrealistic. Decision change lays the foundation for meaningful system change. By creating a legitimate, transparent, and ethically guided procedure for deciding on systemic transformation, the world can move beyond incremental reforms toward solutions capable of addressing planetary-scale crises. The call is clear: leadership must extend beyond governments. Independent experts, auxiliary oversight bodies, and inclusive participation are essential to ensure that decisions are legitimate, ethical, and resilient. Only then can humanity hope to make the systemic transformations needed to keep the planet habitable. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Decision Change".
Blog 17 Nov 2025
encyclopedia>
Ongoing
Invitation to Join the Encyclopedia Advisory Board
The Encyclopedia Advisory Board (AB) serves as the key academic advisory body of the Encyclopedia platform (https://encyclopedia.pub). The Board is composed of distinguished experts and scholars who have significant influence in their respective fields. Advisory Board members provide strategic guidance and professional support to advance the platform's development and ensure the scholarly quality of its content. Eligibility and Requirements Holds a Doctoral degree or possesses extensive and verifiable research or professional experience in the relevant field. Passionate about science and committed to the open sharing of knowledge. Main Roles and Responsibilities Content Review and Quality Control: Provide expert evaluation of submitted entries to ensure academic accuracy, clarity, and integrity. Offer guidance on content quality, publishing policies, and the resolution of ethical issues. Development Strategy and Promotion: Contribute to the strategic development of the Encyclopedia platform by providing guidance on promotion, content innovation, and academic community building. Expand and leverage the Advisory Board to foster broader academic collaboration and interdisciplinary engagement. Compilation and Publication: Organize and coordinate the compilation of Encyclopedia Entry Collections and Encyclopedia books in relevant fields. Edit and curate high-quality entries into a series of published volumes. Benefits Enjoy a one-time free academic video service. Benefit from exclusive discounts on academic video services. Receive a 100 CHF voucher from the Encyclopedia platform, redeemable for MDPI paper publication. Encyclopedia Advisory Board members may be recommended to the Encyclopedia Journal. Upon becoming Editorial Board members of the journal, they are entitled to one free publication annually. Note: AB members who have been inactive for over a year will no longer be eligible for benefits. The standard term of service is two years, with the possibility of renewal. The Encyclopedia Advisory Board is committed to fostering the open sharing of scientific knowledge and to supporting the continued accumulation and dissemination of high-quality content. We warmly welcome experts with outstanding academic credentials to join us in elevating the platform to new heights.
Announcement 10 Nov 2025
encyclopedia>
Hot Topic
Standing Through Evolution: How Horses Develop Their Enduring Strength
Horses are among nature's finest examples of power and grace. From galloping at breathtaking speeds to standing motionless for hours, their musculoskeletal system combines strength, endurance, and stability in ways few other mammals can match. What makes this possible is a remarkable anatomical adaptation known as the passive stay apparatus — a natural “locking system” that allows horses to support their massive bodies with minimal muscular effort. A recent study published in the International Journal of Morphology (2025) by Chilean researchers explores how this system develops throughout a horse's life.  1. The Passive Stay Apparatus: Nature's Energy-Saving Design When horses stand, their joints remain stable without requiring continuous muscular contraction. This energy-saving mechanism is achieved through a combination of tendons, ligaments, and bone structures working together to “lock” the limbs in position. Two of the most critical components are: The Intermediate Tubercle (IT) — a bony prominence on the humerus that provides leverage for the biceps brachii, a muscle that stabilizes the shoulder and assists in forelimb protraction. The Medial Trochlear Ridge (MTR) — part of the femur that interacts with the patella to allow locking of the stifle joint (the horse’s equivalent of the human knee), preventing the hind limb from collapsing under the animal’s weight. Together, these features act like an integrated system of biological springs and braces, enabling the horse to conserve energy whether resting or remaining vigilant against predators. Understanding how these structures develop helps explain not only individual biomechanics but also the evolutionary success of the modern horse. 2. A Life-Stage Approach to Equine Anatomy The Chilean study analyzed humeri and femora from horses representing five distinct life stages: newborn, juvenile, subadult, adult, and senescent. Each specimen was carefully photographed using a calibrated photogrammetric workflow, a precise, non-destructive imaging technique that enables accurate morphometric analysis. Two quantitative metrics were applied: IT relative size: (IT / Trochlear Line Reference) × 100 MTR asymmetry: [(MTR / LTR) × 100] − 100 These ratios provided standardized measures of how the IT and MTR evolve through growth. Although each life stage was represented by a single individual — making the study exploratory — the consistent trends observed align well with broader evolutionary data. Source: Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic (https://encyclopedia.pub/image/3837) 3. Findings: Strength Built Over Time 3.1. Shoulder Stability: The Growing Intermediate Tubercle At birth, the IT is nearly absent, meaning the shoulder lacks the full mechanical leverage needed for efficient stabilization. During the juvenile phase, however, the IT grows rapidly, reflecting the animal’s increasing need for coordinated forelimb movement and weight-bearing. By adulthood, it reaches about 60% of the reference length, representing maximum functional efficiency. In senescent horses, the IT shows a slight reduction, possibly due to bone remodeling or decreased muscular use — a subtle reminder that even the strongest anatomical systems are subject to aging. This progressive development allows for greater biceps–lacertus synergy, enhancing the limb’s ability to both stabilize the shoulder and assist in forelimb protraction, a key component of stride efficiency. 3.2. Hindlimb Endurance: The Evolving Medial Trochlear Ridge MTR–LTR asymmetry is near zero in newborns, rises to ~20–24% in juveniles, ~26% in adults, and ~31% in senescent horses. This increasing asymmetry reinforces the patellar locking mechanism, a key feature of the stifle joint that allows horses to stand for long periods without fatigue. Essentially, the hind limb becomes a self-supporting column, transferring body weight efficiently through the skeleton rather than the muscles. 4. From Growth to Evolution: Echoes of Equine History What makes this study particularly fascinating is how ontogeny (development) reflects phylogeny (evolution). When the researchers compared their findings with known patterns in equid evolution, a striking parallel emerged. Newborn horses, lacking a defined IT and with symmetrical trochlear ridges, resemble early equids such as Mesohippus and Parahippus, species with limited stay-apparatus function. Juveniles, developing these features rapidly, align with transitional forms like Dinohippus, showing intermediate shoulder and stifle mechanics. Adults, with well-developed ITs and pronounced MTR asymmetry, match the anatomy of modern Equus — the fully specialized horse we know today. This relationship supports the concept of peramorphosis, where developmental timing extends or accelerates traits that were advantageous in evolution. In this case, horses literally “grow through” their evolutionary past as they mature. 5. Why This Matters: Bridging Anatomy, Evolution, and Welfare The implications of these findings extend beyond academic curiosity. Understanding the development of the stay apparatus offers practical insights for veterinary science, equine biomechanics, and animal welfare. Training and management: Knowing when key joint structures reach maturity helps optimize the onset of physical training and minimize injury risk in young horses. Veterinary diagnostics: Early detection of asymmetry or underdevelopment in the IT or MTR could indicate musculoskeletal imbalances that predispose horses to lameness or fatigue. Evolutionary biology: The ontogenetic data reinforce long-standing hypotheses that evolutionary innovations often emerge from developmental modifications rather than new structures. This connection between growth and evolution underscores a simple truth: the efficiency of modern horses was not an abrupt innovation, but a gradual refinement repeated in every individual life cycle. 6. Looking Ahead: A Blueprint for Future Research While this study provides valuable insight, its authors emphasize the need for larger datasets encompassing multiple breeds, sexes, and environmental conditions. The integration of CT imaging and 3D morphometric modeling could further refine our understanding of how joint morphology translates into motion efficiency. Combining such anatomical studies with field biomechanics — for example, measuring joint angles during locomotion — would bridge form and function even more closely. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Ontogeny of the Stay Apparatus in Chilean Horses".
Blog 05 Nov 2025
  • Page
  • of
  • 4
Academic Video Service
Feedback