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Topic Review
List of Nuclear Reactors
This is a list of all the commercial nuclear reactors in the world, sorted by country, with operational status. The list only includes civilian nuclear power reactors used to generate electricity for a power grid. All commercial nuclear reactors use nuclear fission. As of April 2020, there are 440 operable power reactors in the world, with a combined electrical capacity of 390 GW. Additionally, there are 55 reactors under construction and 109 reactors planned, with a combined capacity of 63 GW and 118 GW, respectively. 329 more reactors are proposed. For non-power reactors, see List of nuclear research reactors. Where not otherwise specified, all information is sourced from the Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Horseradish Breeding
Horseradish cultivars are highly heterozygous clones and are maintained through asexual propagation, using root cuttings.
  • 2.5K
  • 18 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Global Storm Activity of 2009
Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms, including blizzards, ice storms, and other winter events, from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2009. Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures, such as snow or sleet, or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form (i.e. freezing rain). It may be marked by strong wind, thunder and lightning (a thunderstorm), heavy precipitation, such as ice (ice storm), or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere (as in a dust storm, snowstorm, hailstorm, etc.). Summer storms including flooding, severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones (which can occur in summer or winter) are also included in this list to a certain extent. As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010. Victoria, the scene of horrific bushfires the year before, had a far colder summer, with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009. August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010. The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China, however, contributed to a severe drought in the southwest. Bolivia, Venezuela, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010. On between May 12 and 26, both Mauritania, the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010. A storm (from Proto-Germanic *sturmaz "noise, tumult") is any disturbed state of an astronomical body's atmosphere, especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather. Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops, with a system of high pressure surrounding it. This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds, such as the cumulonimbus. Small, localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground, resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds.
  • 2.5K
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Biogenic Synthesis
Recent advances in the research of therapeutic plant and nanotechnology has been on the increase. Significantly in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) because of its numerous gains over conventional methods. Biological conventions for synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are through the use of nature’s biolaboratory such as plant, microorganisms, alga, carbohydrates and biopolymers . Medicinal plant is a choice natural reserve for different phytochemicals in the synthesis of biogenic MNPs. Thus, they are deemed a green, sustainable, and efficient route for the biosynthesis of MNPs owing to their benign and environmentally friendly nature. In this review we discussed the mode of synthesis strategies and the proposed mechanism of biocidal antibacterial activity of MNPs.  The focus is on the synthesis and possible antibacterial mechanism of specific MNPs such as silver (Ag), gold (Au) and their bimetallic synthesized from plants. This is to give a synergistic view of the efficacy of plant mediated MNPs for the prospect of antibiotic development.
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  • 17 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Challenges and Opportunities of Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen’s wide availability and versatile production methods establish it as a primary green energy source, driving substantial interest among the public, industry, and governments due to its future fuel potential. Notable investment is directed toward hydrogen research and material innovation for transmission, storage, fuel cells, and sensors. Ensuring safe and dependable hydrogen facilities is paramount, given the challenges in accident control. 
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  • 17 Oct 2023
Topic Review
EGFR Signaling in Lung Fibrosis
The epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR), belongs to the family of the ErbB tyrosine kinase receptors. EGFR is also known as ErbB1 or HER1. Other members of this family are ErbB2 (HER2), ErbB3 (HER3) and ErbB4 (HER4).
  • 2.5K
  • 30 Mar 2022
Topic Review
AFM-IR
AFM-IR (atomic force microscope infrared-spectroscopy) is one of a family of techniques that are derived from a combination of two parent instrumental techniques; infrared spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy (SPM). The term was first used to denote a method that combined a tuneable free electron laser with an atomic force microscope (a type of SPM) equipped with a sharp probe that measured the local absorption of infrared light by a sample; it required that the sample be coupled to an infrared-transparent prism and be less than 1μm thick. It improved the spatial resolution of photothermal AFM-based techniques from microns to circa 100 nm. Recording the amount of infrared absorption as a function of wavelength or wavenumber creates an infrared absorption spectra that can be used to chemically characterize and even identify unknown materials. Recording the infrared absorption as a function of position can be used to create chemical composition maps that show the spatial distribution of different chemical components. Novel extensions of the original AFM-IR technique and earlier techniques have enabled the development of bench-top devices capable of nanometer spatial resolution, that do not require a prism and can work with thicker samples, and thereby greatly improving ease of use and expanding the range of samples that can be analysed. One of these techniques has achieved spatial resolutions down to around 20 nm, with a sensitivity down to the scale of molecular monolayer AFM-IR is related to techniques such as tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS), scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM), nano-FTIR and other methods of vibrational analysis with scanning probe microscopy.
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  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Visualization Techniques in Building Energy Simulation and Monitoring
Data visualization has become relevant in the framework of the evolution of big data analysis. Being able to understand data collected in a dynamic, interactive, and personalized way allows for better decisions to be made when optimizing and improving performance. Although its importance is known, there is a gap in the research regarding its design, choice criteria, and uses in the field of building energy consumption. Therefore, the state-of-the-art of visualization techniques used in the field of energy performance, in particular by considering two types of building analysis: simulation and monitoring are discussed. Likewise, data visualizations are categorized according to goals, level of detail and target users. Visualization tools published in the scientific literature, as well as those currently used in the IoT platforms and visualization software, were analyzed. The overview can be used as a starting point when choosing the most efficient data visualization for a specific type of building energy analysis.
  • 2.5K
  • 09 Mar 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Archard’s Law: Foundations, Extensions, and Critiques
Archard’s wear law is among the first and foremost wear models derived from contact mechanics that relates key operating conditions and material hardness to sliding wear through a multifaceted wear coefficient. This entry explores the development, generalization, and critique of the Archard model—a foundational model in wear prediction. It outlines the historical origins of the model, its basis in contact plasticity, and its use of a constant wear coefficient. The discussion highlights modern efforts to extend the model through variable exponents and empirical calibration. Key limitations such as the oversimplification of wear behavior, exclusion of factors like sliding velocity, and scale sensitivity are examined through both theoretical arguments and experimental evidence. The critiques reflect the model’s constrained applicability in diverse wear conditions across varied operating conditions and material phenomena.
  • 2.5K
  • 19 Aug 2025
Topic Review
ARDS
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a serious clinical illness, defined by severe hypoxemic respiratory failure, which continues to be associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare resource utilization. 
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  • 16 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Annus Mirabilis Papers
The Annus mirabilis papers (from Latin annus mīrābilis, "miracle year") are the papers of Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four articles contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, mass, and energy. The annus mirabilis is often called the "miracle year" in English or Wunderjahr in German. The first paper elucidated the theory of the photoelectric effect; the second paper explained Brownian motion; the third paper introduced special relativity; and the fourth, mass-energy equivalence. Together, these papers substantially advanced the field of modern physics.
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  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Industrial Sociology
Industrial sociology is a subfield of sociology that examines the relationship between work, industry, and society. It explores how economic production, labor relations, technological advancements, and organizational structures influence social interactions, identity, and class dynamics. Industrial sociology analyzes the changing nature of work, from traditional manufacturing and factory-based labor to service-oriented and knowledge-based economies. It also investigates power structures in the workplace, trade unions, industrial conflict, automation, and globalization.
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  • 04 Mar 2025
Topic Review
Protein Subcellular Localization
Proteins are localized into different cellular compartments and sub-compartments inside the cell. Each subcellular compartment has a distinct well-defined function in the cell and has a characteristic physicochemical environment, which drives proper functioning of the proteins. Each subcellular compartment has a distinct, well defined function in the cell and is considered to have evolved from the prokaryotic cell. Typical eukaryotic cells have two types of DNAs (i) chromosomal nuclear DNA and (ii) organelle DNA, which is present in mitochondria and chloroplast while prokaryotic cells have only single type of DNA called nucleoid.
  • 2.5K
  • 18 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Monoclonal Gammopathies of Neurological Significance
Monoclonal gammopathies of neurological significance include a widespread range of manifestations, ranging from slowly progressive sensitive demyelinating polyneuropathy with anti-MAG antibody to subacute rapidly progressive forms as in POEMS syndrome (Polyneuropathy, Organomegaly, Endocrinopathy, Monoclonal gammopathy, Skin changes)  or neurolymphomatosis.
  • 2.5K
  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Biological Activity of Cinnamomum Camphora Essential Oils
Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) is an ornamental plant that has been cultivated for a long time to obtain wood or camphor. Furthermore, its essential oil can be used as an alternative medicine and is an important source of perfume. Camphor obtained from camphor trees has long been used as a treatment for various symptoms such as inflammation, infection, congestion, muscle pain, and irritation in various regions. Despite many studies focused on the essential oil of the camphor tree, there is a lack of systematic studies of its extraction or separation. Besides, various components of camphor are not fully understood, and further research is needed on the medicinal effects of individual components of C. camphor. The genus Cinnamomum has crucial economic value and theoretical significance.
  • 2.5K
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Poguli
Poguli or Pugali is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Its area encompasses the Pogal and Paristan valleys, and currently falls within the boundaries of Ramban district's Pogal Paristan tehsil. Like its neighbours Sarazi and Rambani, Poguli is intermediate between Kashmiri and Western Pahari.
  • 2.5K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Dental Implant Surfaces
Bone healing process at the interface between bone and implant surface includes haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. The modifications of titanium dental implant surface that are globally marketed focus on early bone response to switch more quickly from inflammation to proliferation by roughening the surface at the micro-scale. Microstructural modifications change cell behavior around the modified surface, successfully enhancing osseointegration, but they have their own limits. For example, such a modified surface cannot avoid implant failure resulting from shear force because of the occlusal load on the bone-implant interface. This type of failure is able to be bypassed by providing the implant macrodesign with threads, which convert shear force into compressive force that the interface is more resistant to. Dental clinicians and researchers should consider both the implant macrostructure and microstructure to better understand clinical bone response to the dental implant, although this topic is based on the surface microstructural modification. 
  • 2.5K
  • 23 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Blood-Brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits pharmacotherapy of several brain disorders. In addition to structural and metabolic characteristics of the BBB, the ATP-driven, drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (Pgp) is a selective gatekeeper of the BBB, and thus, a primary hindrance to drug delivery into the brain.
  • 2.5K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Histamine in Pharmacotherapy of Itch
Itching can decrease quality of life and exacerbate skin symptoms due to scratching. Itching not only contributes to disease progression but also triggers complications such as skin infections and eye symptoms. Therefore, controlling itching is very important in therapeutic management. In addition to the well-known histamine, IL-31, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been reported as factors that induce itching. Histamine-dependent itching is literally itching caused by histamine. It acts on the “sensory nerve” that perceives pain and itching, and the stimulus is transmitted to the brain as itching, as well as to the nerve endings, causing the release of neurotransmitters called neuropeptides. This neuropeptide then stimulates mast cells to secrete histamine and other substances.
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Billing (Performing Arts)
Billing is a performing arts term used in referring to the order and other aspects of how credits are presented for plays, films, television, or other creative works. Information given in billing usually consists of the companies, actors, directors, producers, and other crew members.
  • 2.5K
  • 14 Oct 2022
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