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Topic Review
Caspase-1 Inhibition
The inflammatory protease caspase-1 is associated with the release of cytokines. An excessive number of cytokines (a “cytokine storm”) is a dangerous consequence of COVID-19 infection and has been indicated as being among the causes of death by COVID-19. The anti-inflammatory drug colchicine (which is reported in the literature to be a caspase-1 inhibitor) and the corticosteroid drugs, dexamethasone and methylprednisolone, are among the most effective active compounds for COVID-19 treatment.
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
S100 Proteins in Psoriasis and Other Autoimmune Diseases
Very well-known AMP-family members are S100 proteins that constitute the largest, multigenic, and calcium-binding protein family in vertebrates. Over 20 types of these proteins have been identified, of which 13 are expressed in the normal or diseased human epidermis. The name of the S100 proteins is due to their biochemical characteristics, namely, they are 100% soluble in saturated ammonium sulfate at neutral pH. S100 proteins are small, acidic proteins with a molecular weight of 9–13 kDa. They are produced as monomers, but exist in cells as anti-parallel homo- and heterodimers, in which monomers are held together by non-covalent bonds and are oriented by a two-fold axis of rotation. Dimers can further associate to form higher-order multimers. Each S100 monomer consists of two helix–loop–helix structural motifs that are Ca2+-binding domains termed EF-hands. 
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Ketogenic Diet Mediated Immune Regulation in Different Diseases
Ketogenic diets (KD) encompass a lower consumption of carbohydrates, adequate protein, and a high fat regimen which induces ketone body production via mimicking the metabolism of the fasting state without significant calorie deprivation. Herein, several facets of ketogenic diet as an immunomodulator with respect to its expansive clinical applications are presented.
  • 1.0K
  • 10 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Regulation of Class Switch Recombination by G4 Structures
Mature B cells notably diversify immunoglobulin (Ig) production through class switch recombination (CSR), allowing the junction of distant “switch” (S) regions. CSR is initiated by activation-induced deaminase (AID), which targets cytosines adequately exposed within single-stranded DNA of transcribed targeted S regions, with a specific affinity for WRCY motifs. In mammalian S regions, abundant G4 (G-quadruplex) DNA on the non-template strand also contributes to the formation of R-loops while the presence of G4 structures within the primary transcripts from S regions participates into recruiting AID. The ability of G4 ligands to modulate the CSR process also underlines the key role of G4 structures in the regulation of CSR.
  • 1.0K
  • 03 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Platelet Biology
Platelets are generated from megakaryocytes in a multi-step process called thrombopoiesis regulated by thrombopoietin. Thrombopoietin stimulates its receptor in megakaryocytes to induce the genesis of pro-platelets via a mechanism activated by low platelet counts. Platelet counts in blood are controlled by the rates of production and removal, involving mechanisms of platelet clearance, activation or ageing. Platelets are the most numerous circulating cell type (≈200,000/µL blood in humans) with an immune function. 
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Immunomodulation by Gut Microbiome on Gastrointestinal Cancers
Gastrointestinal cancer (GI) is a global health disease with a huge burden on a patient’s physical and psychological aspects of life and on health care providers. It is associated with multiple disease related challenges which can alter the patient’s quality of life and well-being. GI cancer development is influenced by multiple factors such as diet, infection, environment, and genetics. Although activating immune pathways and components during cancer is critical for the host’s survival, cancerous cells can target those pathways to escape and survive. As the gut microbiome influences the development and function of the immune system, research is conducted to investigate the gut microbiome–immune interactions, the underlying mechanisms, and how they reduce the risk of GI cancer. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 May 2022
Topic Review
Natural Killer T and Natural Killer Cell-Based Immunotherapy
Both natural killer T (NKT) and natural killer (NK) cells are innate cytotoxic lymphoid cells that produce inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and their role in the innate immune response to tumors and microorganisms has been investigated. Especially, emerging evidence has revealed their status and function in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of tumor cells. As a recent strategy in cancer immunotherapy, the mobilization or restoration of endogenous NKT or NK cells by novel vaccines or therapies has become a focus of research. Several new modalities based on the characteristics of NKT and NK cells, including artificial adjuvant vector cells, chimeric antigen receptor-expressing NK or NKT cell therapy, or their combination with immune checkpoint blockade have been developed. This research examines challenges and future directions for improving these therapies.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells in Solid Tumors
The immune response, both innate and adaptive, is a key player in cancer development and progression. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are a subset of dendritic cells that play one of the central roles in the immune system. They are known mostly as the major IFN type I-producing cells upon stimulation of Toll-like receptors 7 and 9.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Chimeric Antigen Receptor T cells in Multiple Myeloma
Multiple myeloma is a disease of malignant plasma cells and the second most common hematological cancer. This entry describes the history and use of CAR-T cells for the treatment of this disease as well as comment on future approaches.
  • 1.0K
  • 03 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Causality of Vaccine Allergy
Vaccines constitute the most effective medications in public health as they control and prevent the spread of infectious diseases and reduce mortality. Similar to other medications, allergic reactions can occur during vaccination. While most reactions are neither frequent nor serious, anaphylactic reactions are potentially life-threatening allergic reactions that are encountered rarely, but can cause serious complications. The allergic responses caused by vaccines can stem from activation of mast cells via Fcε receptor-1 type I reaction, mediated by the interaction between immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies against a particular vaccine, and occur within minutes or up to four hours. 
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Immunomodulation Potential of Probiotics
The use of probiotics in livestock has been suggested to significantly improve their health, immunity, growth performance, nutritional digestibility, and intestinal microbial balance. Furthermore, it was reported that the use of probiotics in animals was helpful in equilibrating their beneficial microbial population and microbial turnover via stimulating the host immune response through specific secretions and competitive exclusion of potentially pathogenic bacteria in the digestive tract.
  • 1.0K
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
CAR Therapy
Among the many oncology therapies, few have generated as much excitement as CAR-T. The success of CAR therapy would not have been possible without the many discoveries that preceded it, most notably, the Nobel Prize-winning breakthroughs in cellular immunity. However, despite the fact that CAR-T already offers not only hope for development, but measurable results in the treatment of hematological malignancies, CAR-T still cannot be safely applied to solid tumors. The reason for this is, among other things, the lack of tumor-specific antigens which, in therapy, threatens to cause a lethal attack of lymphocytes on healthy cells. In the case of hematological malignancies, dangerous complications such as cytokine release syndrome may occur. Scientists have responded to these clinical challenges with molecular switches.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
RhoH in TCR Signalling
As an atypical member of the Rho family small GTPases, RhoH shares less than 50% sequence similarity with other members, and its expression is commonly observed in the haematopoietic lineage. To date, RhoH function was observed in regulating T cell receptor signalling, and less is known in other haematopoietic cells. Its activation may not rely on the standard GDP/GTP cycling of small G proteins and is thought to be constitutively active because critical amino acids involved in GTP hydrolysis are absent. Alternatively, its activation can be regulated by other types of regulation, including lysosomal degradation, somatic mutation and transcriptional repressor, which also results in an altered protein expression. Aberrant protein expression of RhoH has been implicated not only in B cell malignancies but also in immune-related diseases, such as primary immunodeficiencies, systemic lupus erythematosus and psoriasis, wherein its involvement may provide the link between immune-related diseases and cancer.
  • 999
  • 27 May 2021
Topic Review
Microglia in Brain Homeostasis and Neuroinflammation
Neuroinflammation is a common hallmark in different neurodegenerative conditions that share neuronal dysfunction and a progressive loss of a selectively vulnerable brain cell population. Alongside ageing and genetics, inflammation, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are considered key risk factors. Microglia are considered immune sentinels of the central nervous system capable of initiating an innate and adaptive immune response. Nevertheless, the pathological mechanisms underlying the initiation and spread of inflammation in the brain are still poorly described.
  • 999
  • 23 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Infectious complications in AIHA
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) may be frequently challenged by infectious complications, mainly as a result of immunosuppressive treatments administered. Furthermore, infectious agents are known triggers of AIHA onset and relapse. Although being risk factors for mortality, infec-tions are an underestimated issue in AIHA.
  • 998
  • 21 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Interstitial Pneumonia with Autoimmune Features
In 2015 the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the American Thoracic Society (ATS) “Task Force on Undifferentiated Forms of Connective Tissue Disease-associated Interstitial Lung Disease” proposed classification criteria for a new research category defined as “Interstitial Pneumonia with Autoimmune Features” (IPAF), to uniformly define patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) and features of autoimmunity, without a definite connective tissue disease. These classification criteria were based on a variable combination of features obtained from three domains: a clinical domain consisting of extra-thoracic features, a serologic domain with specific autoantibodies, and a morphologic domain with imaging patterns, histopathological findings, or multicompartment involvement. Features suggesting a systemic vasculitis were excluded. Since publication of ERS/ATS IPAF research criteria, various retrospective studies have been published focusing on prevalence; clinical, morphological, and serological features; and prognosis of these patients showing a broad heterogeneity in the results. Recently, two prospective, cohort studies were performed, confirming the existence of some peculiarities for this clinical entity and the possible progression of IPAF to a defined connective tissue disease (CTD) in about 15% of cases. Moreover, a non-specific interstitial pneumonia pattern, an anti-nuclear antibody positivity, and a Raynaud phenomenon were the most common findings. In comparison with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), IPAF patients showed a better performance in pulmonary function tests and less necessity of oxygen delivery. However, at this stage of our knowledge, we believe that further prospective studies, possibly derived from multicenter cohorts and through randomized control trials, to further validate the proposed classification criteria are needed. 
  • 996
  • 27 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Pancreatic Cancer Treatment
Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest cancers worldwide, largely due to its aggressive development. Consequently, treatment options are often palliative, as only one-fifth of patients present with potentially curable tumors. The only available treatment with curative intent is surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy. However, even for patients that are eligible for surgery, the 5-year OS remains below 10%.
  • 996
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Innate Immunity of the Small Intestine
The small intestine has a huge surface area that is further enhanced by villi and microvilli to facilitate the digestion and absorption of nutrients. The expanded surface area of the small intestine increases the likelihood of exposure to pathogens in the lumen. The small intestine must balance the need for nutrient absorption with the ability to ward off pathogens. The majority of the immune cells in the body reside in the mucosa-associated tissues and the mesenchymal tissues of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) play a vital role in the development of the immunity of the entire body, as most of the antigens that get into the body are transported to the GIT for processing by its innate immunity before being delivered to the adaptive immunity.
  • 996
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy
The treatment landscape for hematologic malignancies has changed since the recent approval of highly effective CAR-T. Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR-T) is a type of immunotherapy in which a patient’s T cells are collected and genetically engineered to improve their ability to recognize and kill cancer cells. However, several issues are still unsolved and represent the challenges for the coming years. The lack of initial responses and early relapse are some hurdles to be tackled. Moreover, new strategies are needed to increase the safety profile or shorten the manufacturing process during CAR-T cells therapy production. Finally, the clinical experience with CAR-T cells for solid tumors has been less encouraging, and development in this setting is desirable.
  • 994
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Osteoarthritis
Along with cytokines, extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by immune cells in the joint contribute to osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis. By high-resolution flow cytometry, we characterized 18 surface markers and 4 proinflammatory cytokines carried by EVs of various sizes in plasma and synovial fluid (SF) from individuals with knee OA, with a primary focus on immune cells that play a major role in OA pathogenesis.
  • 992
  • 09 Sep 2021
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