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Topic Review
Immunological Synapse and Primary Cilium
The primary cilium is a small microtubule-based organelle that extends from the apical surface of most eukaryotic cells into the extracellular space for sensing and transducing a wide range of cues. Defects in cilia growth and function are associated with a group of human inherited multisystemic diseases, known as ciliopathies. In recent years a rising number of ciliary proteins have been described at extraciliary sites, both in ciliated and non-ciliated cells, and have been implicated in cilium-independent functions and different cellular processes. Hematopoietic cells, including T lymphocytes, do not form primary cilia. However, non-ciliated T cells co-opt the ciliogenesis machinery for the assembly and function of the immunological synapse, a well-organized structure formed by immune cells – multiple types of T cells, mast cells, NK cells, B cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells – allowing for antigen recognition and signaling, information exchange and polarized release of molecules into the synaptic cleft. The identification of many, unexpected similarities between the primary cilium and the T cell immunological synapse at the structural, functional and molecular levels have highlighted the homology between these structures, even though they show disparate morphologies. 
  • 1.4K
  • 11 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Basic Differences between Cell Cycle and Endocycle
The standard cell cycle is divided into two periods: (1) the interphase, with the phases G1, S, and G2 and (2) cell division, either mitosis or meiosis. Initially, each new cell is in the G1 (Gap 1) phase. Then, the content of genetic material in the cell nucleus amounts to 2C, i.e., it reaches the basic value in vegetative cells.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Aug 2023
Topic Review
LPA 3 Promotes Mitochondrial Homeostasis against Oxidative Stress
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a growth factor-like lipid mediator that regulates various physiological functions via activation of multiple LPA G protein-coupled receptors. Mitochondria have been suggested to be the primary origin of oxidative stress via the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Mitochondria are responsible for producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and have a calcium buffering capacity for the cell. Defects in mitochondria will lead to declined antioxidant capacity and cell apoptosis. siRNA-mediated depletion of LPA3 leads to the depolarization of mitochondrial potential (ΔΨm) and cellular ROS accumulation. In addition, the depletion of LPA3 enhances cisplatin-induced cytochrome C releasing. This indicates that LPA3 is essential to suppress the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. LPA3 is also shown to improve mitochondrial ADP-ATP exchange by enhancing the protein level of ANT2. On the other hand, LPA3 regulates calcium uptake from the ER to mitochondria via the IP3R1-VDAC1 channel. Moreover, activation of LPA3 by selective agonist OMPT rescues mitochondrial homeostasis of H2O2-induced oxidative stress cells and HGPS patient fibroblasts by improving mitochondrial ΔΨm and OXPHOS. 
  • 1.4K
  • 01 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Dynamic Cancer Cell Heterogeneity
Though heterogeneity of cancers is recognized and has been much discussed in recent years, the concept often remains overlooked in different routine examinations. Indeed, in clinical or biological articles, reviews, and textbooks, cancers and cancer cells are generally presented as evolving distinct entities rather than as an independent heterogeneous cooperative cell population with its self-oriented biology. There are, therefore, conceptual gaps which can mislead the interpretations/diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
  • 1.4K
  • 07 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Exosomes in Motor Neurone Disease
Exosomes are attractive as vehicle systems for small therapeutic molecules and/or biomolecules including nucleic acids and proteins because of their lipid nature, presence of specific surface ligands (CD11b and CD18 receptors, integrins, tetraspanins) and ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. When compared to other drug delivery systems, exosomes have the distinct advantages of blood–brain barrier penetrance, longer duration in systemic circulation, tissue specificity that minimizes unwanted toxicity or off-target effects, stability of content, desirable biocompatibility and minimal toxicity issues. Techniques such as fusion expression, exosome membrane surface display and anchoring platforms have been used to attach peptides and biological ligands of interest to adhesion molecules, tetraspanins or integrins on exosome surface to ensure targeted delivery and enhanced uptake into desired cells.
  • 1.4K
  • 08 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Graviperception and Graviresponses in Euglena gracilis
The genus Euglena contains unicellular eukaryotic flagellates. In addition to light and chemicals, the cells perceive the gravitational field of the Earth and orient themselves paralell to the gravivector to optimize their position in the water column. The perception is based on transient receptor proteins in the membrane which are stimulated by the pressure of the cell content onto the lower membrane. Upon stimulation these proteins open and allow the influx of calcium from the outer medium which binds to a specific calmodulin. In turn this enzyme activates a adenylyl cyclase which produces cAMP believed to stimulate a phosphodiesterase A which finally modifies a flagellar protein which results in a course correction. Since Euglena is photosynthetic it absorbs carbon dioxide and produces oxygen and is thus an excellent candidate for a bioregenerative life support system during long-term space flights.
  • 1.4K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Subcellular Localization of Membrane-Type-1 Matrix Metalloproteinase
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are critical enzymes involved in a variety of cellular processes. MMPs are well known for their ability to degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) and their extracellular role in cell migration. Membrane-type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP), a transmembrane protein, is first known to localize to the cell membrane.
  • 1.4K
  • 15 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
The discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has made an invaluable contribution to the field of regenerative medicine, paving way for identifying the true potential of human embryonic stem cells (ESCs). iPSCs have been widely used in cardiac disease modelling, studying inherited arrhythmias, neural disorders including Alzheimer’s disease, liver disease, and spinal cord injury. Extensive research around identifying factors that are involved in maintaining the identity of ESCs during induction of pluripotency in somatic cells is undertaken. 
  • 1.4K
  • 09 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Neuron–Glia Interaction in ENS
The enteric nervous system (ENS) constitutes the largest part of the peripheral nervous system.
  • 1.4K
  • 19 Jan 2021
Topic Review
IPSC Preparation and Epigenetic Memory
The derivation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from somatic human cells by Takahashi and Yamanaka in 2007 represented a turning point for the field. For the first time, they provided isogenic pluripotent cells with the potential for personalized cell replacement therapies; no ethical issues would be created by using the somatic cells. This opportunity marks a decisive step compared to the generation of human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) arranged by Thomson et al. in 1998. The production of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) represent a breakthrough in regenerative medicine, providing new opportunities for understanding basic molecular mechanisms of human development and molecular aspects of degenerative diseases.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
3D Cell Culture in Micro-Bioreactors
Bioreactors have proven useful for a vast amount of applications. Besides classical large-scale bioreactors and fermenters for prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, micro-bioreactors, as specialized bioreactor systems, have become an invaluable tool for mammalian 3D cell cultures. 
  • 1.4K
  • 27 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Targeting CDK9 for Glioblastoma Treatment
Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive primary malignant brain tumor, and more than two-thirds of patients with glioblastoma die within two years of diagnosis. The challenges of treating this disease mainly include genetic and microenvironmental features that often render the tumor resistant to treatments. Despite extensive research efforts, only a small number of drugs tested in clinical trials have become therapies for patients. Targeting cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is an emerging therapeutic approach that has the potential to overcome the challenges in glioblastoma management.
  • 1.4K
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
HSP70 in Cancer
The 70-kDa heat shock proteins (HSP70s) are abundantly present in cancer, providing malignant cells selective advantage by suppressing multiple apoptotic pathways, regulating necrosis, bypassing cellular senescence program, interfering with tumor immunity, promoting angiogenesis and supporting metastasis. This direct involvement of HSP70 in most of the cancer hallmarks explains the phenomenon of cancer “addiction” to HSP70, tightly linking tumor survival and growth to the HSP70 expression. HSP70 operates in different states through its catalytic cycle, suggesting that it can multi-function in malignant cells in any of these states. Clinically, tumor cells intensively release HSP70 in extracellular microenvironment, resulting in diverse outcomes for patient survival. Given its clinical significance, small molecule inhibitors were developed to target different sites of the HSP70 machinery. Furthermore, several HSP70-based immunotherapy approaches were assessed in clinical trials.
  • 1.4K
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
CIDE Proteins in Human Health
Cell death-Inducing DNA Fragmentation Factor Alpha (DFFA)-like Effector (CIDE) proteins have emerged as lipid droplet-associated proteins that regulate fat metabolism. There are three members in the CIDE protein family—CIDEA, CIDEB, and CIDEC (also known as fat-specific protein 27 (FSP27)). CIDEA and FSP27 are primarily expressed in adipose tissue, while CIDEB is expressed in the liver. Originally, based upon their homology with DNA fragmentation factors, these proteins were identified as apoptotic proteins. However, recent studies have changed the perception of these proteins, redefining them as regulators of lipid droplet dynamics and fat metabolism, which contribute to a healthy metabolic phenotype in humans. Despite various studies in humans and gene-targeting studies in mice, the physiological roles of CIDE proteins remains elusive.
  • 1.4K
  • 07 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Oncogenic KRAS Mutations in Apoptosis and Autophagy Regulation
KRAS, one of the RAS protein family members, plays an important role in autophagy and apoptosis, through the regulation of several downstream effectors. In cancer cells, KRAS mutations confer the constitutive activation of this oncogene, stimulating cell proliferation, inducing autophagy, suppressing apoptosis, altering cell metabolism, changing cell motility and invasion and modulating the tumor microenvironment.
  • 1.4K
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Flow Cytometry and Respiratory Diseases
Flow cytometry (FCM) arises with the design of the cell spectrophotometer, which makes it possible to measure both the content of nucleic acids and the size of the analyzed cells. The subject of the study is not limited to humans, other animal species and bacterias can also be studied. Moreover, FCM allows identify expression of molecules in the membrane, cytoplasm or nucleus, beside soluble proteins (cytokines, chemokines, etc), extracellular vesicles, antibodies, etc.
  • 1.4K
  • 14 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Insights into HP1a-Chromatin Interactions
     Understanding the packaging of DNA into chromatin is essential for the study of gene expression regulatory mechanisms. Heterochromatin establishment and maintenance dynamics have emerged as key features involved in genome stability, cellular growth, and disease. The heterochromatin protein HP1a is the most extensively studied factor that has both establishment and heterochromatin maintenance activities. This protein has two primary domains, namely the chromoshadow and the chromodomain, separated by a hinge region. Several works have taken place over the years, taking the challenge of defining HP1a partners using diverse experimental approaches. We revised and assemble on explaining these interactions and the potential complexes and subcomplexes associated formed with this essential protein. Characterization of these complexes will allow us to clearly understand the consequences of HP1a interactions in heterochromatin in maintenance, heterochromatin dynamics, and the direct relationship of heterochromatin with gene regulation.
  • 1.4K
  • 03 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Tunneling Nanotubes
Tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) are recognized long membrane nanotubes connecting distance cells. In the last decade, growing evidence has shown that these subcellular structures mediate the specific transfer of cellular materials, pathogens, and electrical signals between cells. As intercellular bridges, they play a unique role in embryonic development, collective cell migration, injured cell recovery, cancer treatment resistance, and pathogen propagation. Although TNTs have been considered as potential drug targets for treatment, there is still a long way to go to translate the research findings into clinical practice.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Periodontitis Treatment
Fabrication of biomaterial that mimics a suitable biological microenvironment is still a major challenge in the field of periodontitis treatment. Hence, in this report, we presented for the first time the fabrication of a novel biomaterial 3D matrix using collagen combined with sodium alginate and titanium oxide (TiO2) to recreate the in-vivo microenvironment and to act as a platform for the culture of human periodontal ligament fibroblasts (HPLF) towards osteogenic differentiation.
  • 1.4K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
In Vitro Models of Immune Dysfunction in Space
Spaceflight affects the body on every level. Reports on astronaut health identify bone marrow remodelling and dysfunction of the innate immune system as significant health risks of long-term habitation in space. Microgravity-induced alterations of the bone marrow induce physical changes to the bone marrow stem cell niche. Downstream effects on innate immunity are expected due to impaired hematopoiesis and myelopoiesis. To date, few studies have investigated these effects in real microgravity and the sparsely available literature often reports contrasting results. This emphasizes a need for the development of physiologically relevant in vitro models of the bone marrow stem cell niche, capable of delivering appropriate sample sizes for robust statistics.
  • 1.4K
  • 07 Apr 2022
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