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Topic Review
Structural Components of the Neurovascular Unit
Formulated as a group effort of the stroke community, the transforming concept of the neurovascular unit (NVU) depicts the structural and functional relationship between brain cells and the vascular structure. Composed of both neural and vascular elements, the NVU forms the blood–brain barrier that regulates cerebral blood flow to meet the oxygen demand of the brain in normal physiology and maintain brain homeostasis. Conversely, the dysregulation and dysfunction of the NVU is an essential pathological feature that underlies neurological disorders spanning from chronic neurodegeneration to acute cerebrovascular events such as ischemic stroke and cerebral hemorrhage.
  • 3.2K
  • 29 Sep 2022
Topic Review
International Guidelines for Pain Treatment
The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) describes chronic pain as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage. Chronic pain lasting for at least 3 months may impair the social, psychological, and physical sphere of a subject, leading to serious impairment of both their autonomy and mood.
  • 3.2K
  • 10 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Antipsychotic-Induced Parkinsonism
Among neurological adverse drug reactions (ADRs) in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotics (APs), drug-induced parkinsonism (DIP) is the most common motility disorder caused by drugs affecting dopamine receptors. One of the causes of DIP is the disruption of neurotransmitter interactions that regulate the signaling pathways of the dopaminergic, cholinergic, GABAergic, adenosinergic, endocannabinoid, and other neurotransmitter systems.
  • 3.1K
  • 26 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Mechanism of Action of Carnosine
Carnosine is a natural endogenous molecule that has been extensively studied during the last years due to its promising beneficial effects for human health. It presents multimodal mechanisms of action, being able to exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-aggregate activities, among others.
  • 3.0K
  • 11 May 2022
Topic Review
Curcumin in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Curcumin is a polyphenol extracted from the rhizome of turmeric plant. Beyond its common use as a culinary spice in Eastern Asia, curcumin has been proposed as a therapeutic compound due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Thus, its efficacy has been evaluated in various inflammatory-based psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, depression or autism. 
  • 2.9K
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
The Complement System in the Central Nervous System
The functions of the complement system to both innate and adaptive immunity through opsonization, cell lysis, and inflammatory activities are well known. In contrast, the role of complement in the central nervous system (CNS) which extends beyond immunity, is only beginning to be recognized as important to neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration. In addition to protecting the brain against invasive pathogens, appropriate activation of the complement system is pivotal to the maintenance of normal brain function.
  • 2.8K
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Gabapentin-Associated Movement Disorders
Gabapentin (GBP) is U.S. FDA-approved for the adjunctive treatment of focal seizures and the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. GBP also exhibits analgesic properties, often used as the first line in managing neuropathic pain. GBP-induced movement disorders are under-recognized adverse drug reactions. They are commonly not discussed with patients, and their sudden occurrence can lead to misdiagnosis of a “seizure-like” condition. Also, first-contact physicians might treat them as seizures or psychiatric comorbidities, leading to unnecessary tests and aggressive management.
  • 2.7K
  • 12 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Chronic Vestibular Syndromes including PPPD and MdDS
Overall, the clinical spectrum of vestibular migraine (VM) is broad, with patients describing a range of dizziness symptoms, accompanying symptoms and duration of attacks. When dizziness symptoms become more prolonged, they merge with other chronic vestibular syndromes such as persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD) and mal de débarquement syndrome (MdDS).
  • 2.7K
  • 15 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Antioxidant Therapy in Oxidative Stress-Induced Neurodegenerative Diseases
Free radicals are formed as a part of normal metabolic activities but are neutralized by the endogenous antioxidants present in cells/tissue, thus maintaining the redox balance. This redox balance is disrupted in certain neuropathophysiological conditions, causing oxidative stress, which is implicated in several progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Following neuronal injury, secondary injury progression is also caused by excessive production of free radicals. Highly reactive free radicals, mainly the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), damage the cell membrane, proteins, and DNA, which triggers a self-propagating inflammatory cascade of degenerative events. Dysfunctional mitochondria under oxidative stress conditions are considered a key mediator in progressive neurodegeneration. Exogenous delivery of antioxidants holds promise to alleviate oxidative stress to regain the redox balance.
  • 2.6K
  • 24 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Aetiology and Pathophysiology of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Disease
Neurodegeneration is hallmarked by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons and/or a significant increase in protein aggregates in the brain. Neurodegenerative diseases are a leading cause of death worldwide with over 15 million people currently suffering from either Parkinson’s disease (PD) or Alzheimer’s disease (AD). PD is often characterized by both motor and non-motor symptoms, including muscle rigidity, tremors and bradykinesia, with AD displaying symptoms of confusion and dementia.
  • 2.6K
  • 22 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Brain Lymphatic Drainage System
In 2012, Iliff et al., for the first time, identified a novel structure in the brain called the glymphatic system. This system is considered as a crucial fluid-clearance system in the brain.
  • 2.6K
  • 07 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Neuropsychology of Emotion and Emotion-Regulation
In classic neuropsychological terms, emotion regulation is a higher cortical function that depends on the concerted work of widespread cortical, subcortical, and deep subcortical brain areas. This suggests that we should not only consider the historically relevant question of hemispheric laterality, but also the contribution of specific cognitive skills and brain regions. Thus far, there is emerging evidence to support the link between particular emotion-regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal and suppression) and well-known basic neuropsychological processes (e.g., inhibition and verbal fluency).
  • 2.6K
  • 04 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Arsenic Induced Neurotoxicity
Arsenic is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant widely distributed in the surrounding environmental compartments. Exposure to inorganic arsenic is known to cause major neurological effects such as cytotoxicity, chromosomal aberration, damage to cellular DNA and genotoxicity. On the other hand, long-term exposure to arsenic may cause neurobehavioral effects in the juvenile stage, which may have detrimental effects in the later stages of life. Thus, it is important to understand the toxicology and underlying molecular mechanism of arsenic which will help to mitigate its detrimental effects.
  • 2.5K
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Electrodiffusion in Neuroscience and NPP-Equations
There are two main processes governing the ionic transport, i.e., diffusion—the particle motion caused by a gradient of concentration, and migration—motion of ions caused by a gradient of electrical potential. These two processes are referred to as electrodiffusion. Electrodiffusion of electrolytes serves as a mean for communication in the nervous system. It can directly affect the excitatory transmission in the synaptic cleft. Electrodiffusion maintains the local ions concentration in brain extracellular spaces at heathy levels but may be also involved in the propagation of epileptic seizures during pathological conditions. The accurate interpretation of physiological observations requires better understanding of the underlying electrodiffusion phenomena.The description of electrodiffusion is very often performed using the Nernst–Planck–Poisson (NPP) model. It has been acknowledged that the spatiotemporal dynamics of the ion concentrations in thin dendrites and dendritic spines of nerve cells follow the Nernst–Planck equation, and sub-membrane currents in neuronal membrane have already been successfully described using the NPP model.
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Neuroinflammatory Diseases
Frequent diseases of the CNS, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia), elicit a neuroinflammatory response that contributes to the neurodegenerative disease process itself. The immune and nervous systems use the same mediators, receptors, and cells to regulate the immune and nervous systems as well as neuro-immune interactions. In various neurodegenerative diseases, peripheral inflammatory mediators and infiltrating immune cells from the periphery cause exacerbation to current injury in the brain. Acetylcholine (ACh) plays a crucial role in the peripheral and central nervous systems, in fact, other than cells of the CNS, the peripheral immune cells also possess a cholinergic system. 
  • 2.4K
  • 28 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Stem Cell Types for Treating Depression
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), colloquially known as depression, is a debilitating condition affecting an estimated 3.8% of the population globally, of which 5.0% are adults and 5.7% are above the age of 60. MDD is differentiated from common mood changes and short-lived emotional responses due to subtle alterations in gray and white matter, including the frontal lobe, hippocampus, temporal lobe, thalamus, striatum, and amygdala. It can be detrimental to a person’s overall health if it occurs with moderate or severe intensity. It can render a person suffering terribly to perform inadequately in their personal, professional, and social lives. Depression, at its peak, can lead to suicidal thoughts and ideation. Antidepressants manage clinical depression and function by modulating the serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine neurotransmitter levels in the brain. 
  • 2.4K
  • 07 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Antidepressants and Circadian Rhythm
Circadian oscillations alter drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) as well as intracellular signaling systems, target molecules (e.g., receptors, transporters, and enzymes), and gene transcription. There is a positive influence of drug dosing-time on the efficacy of depression therapy. On the other hand, antidepressants have also demonstrated to modulate circadian rhythmicity and sleep–wake cycles. 
  • 2.3K
  • 23 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Biological Theories of Dyslexia
The primary symptoms of dyslexia were first identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881. The term dyslexia was coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist practicing in Stuttgart, Germany . Since then generations of researchers have been investigating what dyslexia is and trying to identify the biological causes. The theories of the etiology of dyslexia have and are evolving with each new generation of dyslexia researchers, and the more recent theories of dyslexia tend to enhance one or more of the older theories as understanding of the nature of dyslexia evolves. Theories should not be viewed as competing, but as attempting to explain the underlying causes of a similar set of symptoms from a variety of research perspectives and background.
  • 2.3K
  • 09 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Dissociation (Neuropsychology)
In neuropsychology, dissociation involves identifying the neural substrate of a particular brain function through identification of case studies, neuroimaging, or neuropsychological testing.
  • 2.3K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
BBSOAS Neurodevelopmental Disorder: Clinical Manifestations and Mouse Models
Bosch–Boonstra–Schaaf Optic Atrophy Syndrome (BBSOAS; OMIM 615722; ORPHA 401777) is a genetic neurodevelopmental syndrome caused by the haploinsufficiency of the NR2F1 gene, a key transcriptional regulator of brain and eye development. Although intellectual disability, developmental delay and visual impairment are arguably the most common symptoms affecting BBSOAS patients, multiple additional features are often reported, including epilepsy, autistic traits and hypotonia. These features can be present alone or as comorbidities, with a severity degree that presumably varies depending on the type of NR2F1 genetic perturbation, following a still not well characterized genotype–phenotype correlation. Pathogenic BBSOAS point mutations are principally located in the two most conserved functional domains of the NR2F1 protein: the DNA-binding domain (DBD), responsible for the interaction with target gene regulatory sequences, and the ligand-binding domain (LBD), necessary for dimerization and co-factor binding. 
  • 2.3K
  • 27 Apr 2022
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