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Topic Review
Associations between CKD, Retina, and CVD
The kidney, brain, and retina are highly metabolic organs that require specialized vascular networks to carry out their function. Cohort studies suggest that retinopathy, cerebrovascular disease (CVD), and chronic kidney disease (CKD) frequently coincide. The frequently concurrent prevalence of retinopathy, CVD, and CKD suggests a common basis for pathology.
  • 963
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Deep Learning Methods for Retinal Disease Diagnosis
The advancement of digital medical imaging has brought about a significant change in ophthalmology as it has introduced effective technologies that help in the detection of such diseases. By improving early detection through image analysis and identifying minuscule anomalies, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has considerably coped with retinal diseases. Different Machine Learning (ML) and Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are efficient at analyzing images and are particularly incredible at recognizing complex patterns in medical images.
  • 960
  • 21 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Erythropoietin in Optic Neuropathies
Erythropoietin (EPO) is known as a hormone for erythropoiesis in response to anemia and hypoxia. EPO could interact with its heterodimer receptor (EPOR/βcR) to exert its anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation effects in preventing retinal ganglion cells death through different intracellular signaling pathways.
  • 953
  • 12 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a non-invasive imaging modality used to visualize the retinal layers and vessels which shows encouraging results in the study of various neurological conditions, including dementia.
  • 951
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Subthreshold Nano-Second Laser Treatment
The presence of drusen is an important hallmark of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Laser-induced regression of drusen, first observed over four decades ago, has led to much interest in the potential role of lasers in slowing the progression of the disease. In this article, we summarise the key insights from pre-clinical studies into the possible mechanisms of action of various laser interventions that result in beneficial changes in the retinal pigment epithelium/Bruch’s membrane/choriocapillaris interface. Key learnings from clinical trials of laser treatment in AMD are also summarised, concentrating on the evolution of laser technology towards short pulse, non-thermal delivery such as the nanosecond laser. The evolution in our understanding of AMD, through advances in multimodal imaging and functional testing, as well as ongoing investigation of key pathological mechanisms, have all helped to set the scene for further well-conducted randomised trials to further explore potential utility of the nanosecond and other subthreshold short pulse lasers in AMD.
  • 948
  • 12 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Treatment of Fungal Endophthalmitis
 In recent, large case series of fungal endophthalmitis (FE), the most frequent etiologic agents for all types of FE are molds (usually Aspergillus species, while Fusarium is the prevalent etiology in keratitis-related FE). Candida was the organism found in most cases of endogenous FE. Lately, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was increasingly used for the diagnosis of FE, allowing for very high diagnostic sensitivity, while the costs become more affordable with time. The most important shortcoming of PCR—the limited number of pathogens that can be simultaneously searched for—may be overcome by newer techniques, such as next-generation sequencing. There are even hopes of searching for genetic sequences that codify resistance to antifungals.
  • 948
  • 17 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Spotlight on MicroPulse Laser Trabeculoplasty in Open-Angle Glaucoma
Glaucoma is the most common cause of permanent blindness in the world, caused by a progressive optic neuropathy. Patients with glaucoma are often treated with topical medicines therapy in order to reduce intra-ocular pressure (IOP). On the other hand, laser therapies, with the introduction of Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT) and successively with Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT), were reported to be effective in IOP control, with low adverse effect rates. In recent years, the micropulse laser, a subthreshold laser technology, was introduced with the goal of reducing side effects while maintaining the effectiveness of the laser treatments. Several studies focused on Micropulse Diode Laser Trabeculoplasty (MDLT) in open-angle glaucoma, to evaluate its effectiveness and possible side effects. Promising results were reported, but irradiation circumstances have not been standardized yet and its role as a substitute for previous laser techniques has yet to be defined.
  • 947
  • 08 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Basic Principles of Adaptive Optics
The eye, the photoreceptive organ used to perceive the external environment, is of great importance to humans. It has been proven that some diseases in humans are accompanied by fundus changes; therefore, the health status of people may be interpreted from retinal images. However, the human eye is not a perfect refractive system for the existence of ocular aberrations. These aberrations not only affect the ability of human visual discrimination and recognition, but restrict the observation of the fine structures of human eye and reduce the possibility of exploring the mechanisms of eye disease. Adaptive optics (AO) is a technique that corrects optical wavefront aberrations. Once integrated into ophthalmoscopes, AO enables retinal imaging at the cellular level.
  • 946
  • 19 May 2022
Topic Review
Myopia, Sodium Chloride, and Vitreous Fluid Imbalance
Myopia prevalence is low in native people consuming traditional diets lacking in sodium chloride, and nutritional epidemiological evidence supports the association of rising myopia prevalence with dietary sodium intake. East Asian populations have among the highest rates of myopia associated with high dietary sodium. Similar associations of sodium and rising myopia prevalence were observed in the United States in the late 20th century.
  • 944
  • 12 Mar 2024
Topic Review
The Role of Atropine in Preventing Myopia Progression
Myopia, also known as ‘nearsightedness’, is the one of the most common refractive diseases worldwide, and its prevalence is likely to rapidly increase in the near future.
  • 941
  • 30 May 2022
Topic Review
Sjögren’s Syndrome Dry Eye
Sjögren’s syndrome is a chronic and insidious auto-immune disease characterized by lymphocyte infiltration of exocrine glands. The patients typically present with ocular surface diseases related to dry eye and other systemic manifestations. However, due to the high prevalence of dry eye disease and the lack of objective and clinically reliable diagnostic tools, discriminating Sjögren’s syndrome dry eye (SSDE) from non-Sjögren’s syndrome dry eye (NSSDE) remains a challenge for clinicians. Diagnosing Sjögren’s syndrome is important to improve the quality of life of patients through timely referral for systemic workups, as SS is associated with serious systemic complications such as lymphoma and other autoimmune diseases. 
  • 939
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Retinal Ganglion Cell Structure and Function in Glaucoma
Glaucoma, a leading cause of irreversible blindness globally, primarily affects retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Glaucoma is a multifactorial eye disease defined by the progressive degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons, eventually leading to irreversible vision loss. It has been projected that the worldwide prevalence of individuals affected by glaucoma will experience a substantial growth of 74% between the years 2013 and 2040. Glaucoma poses significant clinical and public health challenges as one of the leading causes of blindness around the globe. While elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) remains a significant risk factor and therapeutic target for glaucoma, it is becoming increasingly apparent that other factors may play a role in the disease’s pathogenesis and progression. The structure and function of RGCs, which serve as the ultimate output neurons of the retina and transmit visual information to the brain, are among the most crucial components being studied.
  • 934
  • 21 Dec 2023
Topic Review Video
Airborne Chemical Exposure and Ocular Surface Irritation
In our recent paper "An Assessment of the Ocular Toxicity of Two Major Sources of Environmental Exposure" we discuss the impact on the eye of specific chemicals released from burn pits and from the East Palestine, Ohio train derailment. This entry discusses the importance of investigating the nature and consequences of these exposures in hopes of raising awareness of an underrecognized health issue.
  • 930
  • 29 Sep 2025
Topic Review
Typical and Atypical Optic Neuritis
Optic neuritis (ON) is an inflammatory condition involving the optic nerve. Several important typical and atypical ON variants are now recognized. Typical ON has a more favorable prognosis; it can be idiopathic or represent an early manifestation of demyelinating diseases, mostly multiple sclerosis (MS). The atypical spectrum includes entities such as antibody-driven ON associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD), chronic/relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION), and sarcoidosis-associated ON. Appropriate and timely diagnosis is essential to rapidly decide on the appropriate treatment, maximize visual recovery, and minimize recurrences. 
  • 919
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Diagnosis of Fungal Endophthalmitis
In large case series of fungal endophthalmitis (FE), the most frequent etiologic agents for all types of FE are molds (usually Aspergillus species, while Fusarium is the prevalent etiology in keratitis-related FE). Candida was the organism found in most cases of endogenous FE. Lately, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was increasingly used for the diagnosis of FE, allowing for very high diagnostic sensitivity, while the costs become more affordable with time. The most important shortcoming of PCR—the limited number of pathogens that can be simultaneously searched for—may be overcome by newer techniques, such as next-generation sequencing. There are even hopes of searching for genetic sequences that codify resistance to antifungals. 
  • 913
  • 10 May 2022
Topic Review
Ophthalmology Clinics in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia, which is a growing public health concern. Although there is no curative treatment for established AD, early recognition and modification of the known risk factors can reduce both severity and the rate of progression.  Currently, an early diagnosis of AD is rarely achieved, as there is no screening for AD. The cognitive decline in AD is gradual and often goes unnoticed by patients and caregivers, resulting in patients presenting at later stages of the disease.  Primary care physicians (general practitioners in the UK) can administer a battery of tests for patients presenting with memory problems and cognitive impairment, however final diagnosis of AD is usually made by specialised tertiary level clinics.  Recent studies suggest that in AD, visuospatial difficulties develop prior to the development of memory problems and screening for visuospatial difficulties may offer a tool to screen for early stage AD. AD and cataracts share common risk and predisposing factors, and the stage of cataract presentation for intervention has shifted dramatically with early cataract referral and surgical intervention becoming the norm. This presentation offers an ideal opportunity to administer a screening test for AD, and visuospatial tools can be administered at post-operative visits by eye clinics.  Abnormal findings can be communicated to primary care physicians for further follow up and assessment, or possible interventions which modify risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension and obesity can be undertaken.
  • 911
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Amino Acids Metabolism in Retinopathy
The characterization of amino acids in diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) by metabolomics from clinical and basic research perspectives has been discussed. This entry delineates the significance of amino acid metabolism in retinopathy and provides possible direction to discover therapeutic targets for retinopathy.
  • 909
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Overcoming Antimicrobial Resistance in Endophthalmitis
Endophthalmitis is a rare but vision-threatening infection characterized by marked inflammation of intraocular fluids and tissues, uncommonly seen following surgery and intravitreal injection. Antimicrobials are used worldwide in the prophylaxis and treatment of bacterial and fungal infections of the eye and are standard treatment in the preoperative and postoperative care of surgical patients. However, antimicrobials are reported to be overprescribed in many parts of the world, which contributes to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR complicates the prophylaxis and treatment of endophthalmitis. 
  • 908
  • 18 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Deep Learning in Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) provides depth-resolved visualization of the retinal microvasculature without intravenous dye injection. It facilitates investigations of various retinal vascular diseases and glaucoma by assessment of qualitative and quantitative microvascular changes in the different retinal layers and radial peripapillary layer non-invasively, individually, and efficiently. Deep learning (DL), a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) based on deep neural networks, has been applied in OCT-A image analysis and achieved good performance for different tasks, such as image quality control, segmentation, and classification. DL technologies have further facilitated the potential implementation of OCT-A in eye clinics in an automated and efficient manner and enhanced its clinical values for detecting and evaluating various vascular retinopathies.
  • 906
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Central Role of Inflammation and Parainflammation in AMD
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an age-related condition that progressively impairs central vision with increasing age. AMD affects the central portion of the retina called the macula, which is required for central vision and visually demanding tasks like recognizing faces, reading, and driving.
  • 903
  • 26 Dec 2023
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