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Topic Review
WRKY Transcription Factors
The WRKY gene family is a plant-specific transcription factor (TF) group, playing important roles in many different response pathways of diverse abiotic stresses (drought, saline, alkali, temperature, and ultraviolet radiation, and so forth). In recent years, many studies have explored the role and mechanism of WRKY family members from model plants to agricultural crops and other species. Abiotic stress adversely affects the growth and development of plants.
  • 2.6K
  • 24 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Leaf Senescence
Leaf senescence is an ordered physiological process in which cellular structures and biomolecules are progressively broken down and the resulting products mobilized to other plant organs such as fruits, seeds, tubers and/or more apical leaves.
  • 2.6K
  • 02 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Prosopis Species in South Africa
The infestation of invasive plants such as Prosopis species does not only affect the groundwater levels but also threatens the grazing capacity and species richness of most of the semi-arid areas around South Africa. Though Prosopis is invasive, it is however of good nutritive value and can serve as an alternative source of protein and minerals for livestock during the dry season. Bush encroachment by browsable invasive species can be controlled through biological methods by using organisms such as livestock. 
  • 2.6K
  • 30 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Receptor-Like Kinases
Receptors form the crux for any biochemical signaling. Receptor-like kinases (RLKs) are conserved protein kinases in eukaryotes that establish signaling circuits to transduce information from outer plant cell membrane to the nucleus of plant cells, eventually activating processes directing growth, development, stress responses, and disease resistance. Plant RLKs share considerable homology with the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) of the animal system, differing at the site of phosphorylation. Typically, RLKs have a membrane-localization signal in the amino-terminal, followed by an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a solitary membrane-spanning domain, and a cytoplasmic kinase domain. The functional characterization of ligand-binding domains of the various RLKs has demonstrated their essential role in the perception of extracellular stimuli, while its cytosolic kinase domain is usually confined to the phosphorylation of their substrates to control downstream regulatory machinery. Identification of the several ligands of RLKs, as well as a few of its immediate substrates have predominantly contributed to a better understanding of the fundamental signaling mechanisms. In the model plant Arabidopsis, several studies have indicated that multiple RLKs are involved in modulating various types of physiological roles via diverse signaling routes. Here, we summarize recent advances and provide an updated overview of transmembrane RLKs in Arabidopsis.
  • 2.6K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Zeaxanthin and Photoprotection in Plants
Conversion of sunlight into photochemistry by plants depends on photoprotective processes that allow safe use of sunlight over a broad range of environmental conditions. This entry focuses on the universal use by plants of the photoprotector zeaxanthin that is part of a group of three interconvertible leaf carotenoids collectively known as the xanthophyll cycle. We survey the striking plasticity of this photoprotective process in nature that can be fine-tuned to produce a fit for different environments with various combinations of light, temperature, and other factors.
  • 2.6K
  • 26 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Lavender Essential Oil
The producers of essential oils from the Republic of Moldova care about the quality of their products and at the same time, try to capitalize on the waste from processing. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the chemical composition of lavender (Lavanda angustifolia L.) essential oil and some by-products derived from its production (residual water, residual herbs), as well as to assess their “in vitro” antimicrobial activity. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of essential oils produced by seven industrial manufacturers led to the identification of 41 constituents that meant 96.80–99.79% of the total. The main constituents are monoterpenes (84.08–92.55%), followed by sesquiterpenes (3.30–13.45%), and some aliphatic compounds (1.42–3.90%). The high-performance liquid chromatography analysis allowed the quantification of known triterpenes, ursolic, and oleanolic acids, in freshly dried lavender plants and in the residual by-products after hydrodistillation of the essential oil. The lavender essential oil showed good antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Xanthomonas campestris, Erwinia carotovora at 300 μg/mL concentration, and Erwinia amylovora, Candida utilis at 150 μg/mL concentration, respectively. 
  • 2.6K
  • 14 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns
Plants depend on both preformed and inducible defence responses to defend themselves against biotic stresses stemming from pathogen attacks. In this regard, plants perceive pathogenic threats from the environment through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognise microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), and so induce plant defence responses against invading pathogens. Close to thirty PRR proteins have been identified in plants, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying MAMP perception by these receptors/receptor complexes are not fully understood. As such, knockout (KO) of genes that code for PRRs and co-receptors / defence-associated proteins is a valuable tool to study plant immunity. The loss of gene activity often causes changes in the phenotype of the model plant, allowing in vivo studies of gene function and associated biological mechanisms. Here, we review the functions of selected PRRs, brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1) associated receptor kinase 1 (BAK1) and other associated defence proteins that have been identified in plants, and also outline KO lines generated by T-DNA insertional mutagenesis as well as the effect on MAMP perception - and triggered immunity (MTI). In addition, we further review the role of membrane raft domains in flg22-induced MTI in Arabidopsis, due to the vital role in the activation of several proteins that are part of the membrane raft domain theory in this regard.
  • 2.6K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Glycosylation in Plant Development
The development of plants and the interplay with its environment are highly linked to glycosylation of proteins and lipids as well as metabolism and signaling of sugars.
  • 2.6K
  • 14 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Digital PCR and plant studies
Digital PCR (dPCR) is a breakthrough technology that able to provide sensitive and absolute nucleic acid quantification. It is a third-generation technology in the field of nucleic acid amplification. A unique feature of the technique is that of dividing the sample into numerous separate compartments, in each of which an independent amplification reaction takes place. Several instrumental platforms have been developed for this purpose, and different statistical approaches are available for reading the digital output data.
  • 2.6K
  • 16 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Bt Brinjal
The Bt brinjal is a suite of transgenic brinjals (also known as an eggplant or aubergine) created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry1Ac) from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal cultivars. The insertion of the gene, along with other genetic elements such as promoters, terminators and an antibiotic resistance marker gene into the brinjal plant is accomplished using Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. The Bt brinjal has been developed to give resistance against lepidopteron insects, in particular the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis)(FSB). Mahyco, an Indian seed company based in Jalna, Maharashtra, has developed the Bt brinjal. The genetically modified brinjal event is termed Event EE 1, and Mahyco have also applied for approval of two brinjal hybrids. The Event EE 1 was introgressed by plant breeding into various local varieties by University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Some of the cultivars of brinjal include: Malpur local, Manjari gota, Kudachi local, Udupi local, 112 GO, and Pabkavi local. It was approved for commercialization in India in 2009, but - after an apparent public outcry and rounds of debates in which representatives from Mahyco, the scientific community, and NGO's spoke on the topic - the then Indian Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, facilitated a moratorium on its release until further, unspecified, tests were conducted. Bt brinjal was approved for commercial release in Bangladesh in 2013.
  • 2.6K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Enzymatic Antioxidant
Plant enzymes are superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferases (GST), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), which work as part of the antioxidant defence system. These enzymes together form a complex set of mechanisms to minimise, buffer, and scavenge the reactive oxygen species (ROS) efficiently. 
  • 2.6K
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Orchid Micropropagation Using Temporary Immersion System
Temporary immersion system (TIS) overcomes the limitations of SS and liquid culture systems by temporarily submerging the plants in the liquid medium for shorter periods, followed by exposing them directly to the gaseous environment by draining the liquid medium. The shorter immersion time and more prolonged gas exposure lower the detrimental effects of hyperhydricity and asphyxia on plants, providing optimal environmental conditions for efficient nutrient absorption under the least liquid contact. Greater gas exposure improves oxygen transport to cultured cells minimizing oxygen limitation and lowering the asphyxia effect on the plant tissues in TIS. Furthermore, enhancing headspace with carbon dioxide (CO2) and culture agitation by hydrodynamic forces without mechanical devices in TIS allows normal development and increases plant tissue multiplication with regular photosynthetic activities and minor shear stress.
  • 2.6K
  • 07 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Prickly Pear Seed Oil
The PPSO has been extracted from prickly pear seeds using different extraction techniques, from conventional to advanced, and the PPSO yield varied depending on many factors, including geographic region, harvest period, fruit variety, maturation, extraction method and type of extraction solvent. Based on physicochemical properties of PPSO, it is considered an edible oil and can be used by humans. The chemical characterization of the oil has been reported, and it is sufficiently understood that the PPSO has high nutritive value and can be further studied for its health promotion effects.
  • 2.5K
  • 08 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Volatile Organic Compounds
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are promising alternatives to synthetic pesticides in pest and disease management. VOCs are gaining interest due to the various advantages of their application, such as the reduction in residuals in the environment and their ease of application in different agricultural systems. 
  • 2.5K
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Voisin Rational Grazing and Its Four Principles
This entry briefly describes the need to promote sustainable agriculture, proposing Voisin Rational Grazing (VRG) as an alternative livestock production system as a way to address sustainability in all its dimensions. It describes the four VRG principles that allows this livestock production system to attain high productive standards while boosting social, cultural and environmental characteristics within the pastoral ecosystem.
  • 2.5K
  • 15 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Flavonoid-Auxin/Cytokinin Link and Symbiosis
Flavonoid biosynthesis is responsive to a wide range of stresses, and the numerous synthesized flavonoid species offer two main evolutionary advantages to land plants. First, flavonoids are antioxidants and thus defend plants against those adverse conditions that lead to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Second, flavonoids aid in protecting plants against water and nutrient deficiency by modulating root development and establishing symbiotic relations with beneficial soil fungi and bacteria. 
  • 2.5K
  • 10 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Spring Wheat
Spring wheat as durum or bread wheat is grown worldwide in mega-environments (ME; 1-6) at latitudes <40 degree during the winter or early spring season and flower in short days with relatively little vernalization requirement. Based on protein contents, kernel color and hardness of endosperm, spring wheat is classified into hard red, soft white and hard white spring with high baking quality.  
  • 2.5K
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Seed Germination
Mature dry seeds contain thousands of stored mRNAs that have accumulated during seed maturation, and these can serve as templates for protein synthesis during germination.
  • 2.5K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
List of Vulnerable Plants
As of September 2016, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists 5430 vulnerable plant species. 25% of all evaluated plant species are listed as vulnerable. The IUCN also lists 244 subspecies and 235 varieties as vulnerable. No subpopulations of plants have been evaluated by the IUCN. For a species to be assessed as vulnerable to extinction the best available evidence must meet quantitative criteria set by the IUCN designed to reflect "a high risk of extinction in the wild". Endangered and critically endangered species also meet the quantitative criteria of vulnerable species, and are listed separately. See: List of endangered plants, List of critically endangered plants. Vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered species are collectively referred to as threatened species by the IUCN. Additionally 1674 plant species (7.6% of those evaluated) are listed as data deficient, meaning there is insufficient information for a full assessment of conservation status. As these species typically have small distributions and/or populations, they are intrinsically likely to be threatened, according to the IUCN. While the category of data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made for the taxa, the IUCN notes that it may be appropriate to give them "the same degree of attention as threatened taxa, at least until their status can be assessed." This is a complete list of vulnerable plant species, subspecies and varieties evaluated by the IUCN.
  • 2.5K
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Two-Line Hybrid Rice Breeding
This entry enlightens a deep understanding of the molecular control of MF in EGMS liens and exploring the regulatory driving forces that function efficiently during plant adaptation under a changing environment. 
  • 2.5K
  • 11 Nov 2020
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