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Topic Review
Static Osteogenesis versus Dynamic Osteogenesis
Static (SO) and dynamic (DO) osteogenesis are two very different types of osteogenesis, which are thus named because the former is characterized by pluristratified cords of unexpectedly stationary osteoblasts which differentiate at a fairly constant distance from the blood capillaries and transform into osteocytes without moving from the onset site, while the latter is distinguished by the well-known typical monostratified laminae of movable osteoblasts, which secrete bone moving towards the vessels.
  • 1.4K
  • 25 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Glutamate Protects against Catecholamine Oxidation
Catecholamines, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, take part in regulating a variety of mental processes, including cognitive ability, attention, memory, mood, and reward. Glutamate, as a neurotransmitter, plays an important role in learning, memory, neuronal plasticity, and brain development. The excessive stimulation of glutamate receptors causes the excitatory toxicity of neuron cells; thus, neurons are endowed with high-affinity glutamate transporters to enrich glutamate.
  • 1.4K
  • 16 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Tuning between Nuclear Organization and Functionality in Health
The organization of eukaryotic genome in the nucleus, a double-membraned organelle separated from the cytoplasm, is highly complex and dynamic. The functional architecture of the nucleus is confined by the layers of internal and cytoplasmic elements, including chromatin organization, nuclear envelope associated proteome and transport, nuclear–cytoskeletal contacts, and the mechano-regulatory signaling cascades. The size and morphology of the nucleus could impose a significant impact on nuclear mechanics, chromatin organization, gene expression, cell functionality and disease development. The maintenance of nuclear organization during genetic or physical perturbation is crucial for the viability and lifespan of the cell. Abnormal nuclear envelope morphologies, such as invagination and blebbing, have functional implications in several human disorders, including cancer, accelerated aging, thyroid disorders, and different types of neuro-muscular diseases. 
  • 1.4K
  • 07 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Subcellular Localization of Membrane-Type-1 Matrix Metalloproteinase
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are critical enzymes involved in a variety of cellular processes. MMPs are well known for their ability to degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) and their extracellular role in cell migration. Membrane-type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP), a transmembrane protein, is first known to localize to the cell membrane.
  • 1.4K
  • 15 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Mycotoxins Beauvericin and Enniatins
Mycotoxins are a structurally diverse group of mostly low-molecular-weight compounds. Their structures range from single heterocyclic rings to irregularly arranged rings of six to eight members and their molecular weights are usually less than 1000 Da. Therefore, they do not induce any response in the human immune system.
  • 1.4K
  • 05 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Click Reaction in Chemical Proteomics
Proteomics is a kind of omics which studies the protein composition, distribution and changing rules in cells, tissues or organisms. Essentially, it refers to the macroscale study of protein characteristics, including protein expression level, post-translational modification, small molecule–protein interaction and so on. Research on the proteome cannot only provide the material foundation for the law of the activities of life, but also provides a theoretical foundation and solutions to elucidate and conquer numerous types of mechanisms of illness. Click chemistry was first put forward by K B Sharpless in 2001 which provides a quick and reliable synthesis method for different molecules to offer a range of reactivities, orthogonality and utility in various applications. Click chemistry is characterized by good chemical selectivity, favorable solvent compatibility, diverse modularization, minimum synthesis requirements and high yield, upon which it considerably reduces the effect of sensor incorporation on protein activity and reveals the structure and functionality of proteins.
  • 1.4K
  • 24 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Basis of Soybean Cold Tolerance
Cold stress is a major factor influencing the geographical distribution of soybean growth and causes immense losses in productivity. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that the soybean has undergone to survive cold temperatures will have immense value in improving soybean cold tolerance. Cold-tolerant quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were found to be overlapped with the genomic region of maturity loci of E1, E3, E4, pubescence color locus of T, stem growth habit gene locus of Dt1, and leaf shape locus of Ln, indicating that pleiotropic loci may control multiple traits, including cold tolerance. The C-repeat responsive element binding factors (CBFs) are evolutionarily conserved across species. The expression of most GmDREB1s was upregulated by cold stress and overexpression of GmDREB1B;1 in soybean protoplast, and transgenic Arabidopsis plants can increase the expression of genes with the DRE core motif in their promoter regions under cold stress. Other soybean cold-responsive regulators, such as GmMYBJ1, GmNEK1, GmZF1, GmbZIP, GmTCF1a, SCOF-1 and so on, enhance cold tolerance by regulating the expression of COR genes in transgenic Arabidopsis. CBF-dependent and CBF-independent pathways are cross-talking and work together to activate cold stress gene expression. 
  • 1.4K
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
PERK
Multiple myeloma is a bone marrow cancer that represents a severe health threat. The drugs used nowadays in chemotherapy often encounter resistance leading to a dramatic loss of their efficacy, which consequently affects patients’ survival. Previous studies have shown that the protein kinase R (PKR)-like ER kinase (PERK) pathway, which is one of the three branches of the unfolded protein response, is highly activated in multiple myeloma, possibly contributing to the chemotherapy resistance that these patients develop. In this study, we have used the compound GSK2606414, which is a PERK inhibitor, and found that myeloma cells are highly sensitive to this molecule. These effects were more pronounced when the inhibitor was used in combination with an anti-myeloma drug such as the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, suggesting that the PERK pathway could be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of multiple myeloma patients.
  • 1.4K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Synthesis of Silver Nanostructure
Silver nanoparticles are one of the commonly used metal materials for SP because of their high sensitivity to refractive index change, convenient synthesis, and high controllable degree of shape and size. Silver nanoparticles of different sizes and shapes are used in many fields. Various synthesis methods have undergone many improvements over time and technological developments in order to provide precise control over the shape and size of the synthesized silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticle fabrication is usually divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up.
  • 1.4K
  • 19 Apr 2023
Topic Review
HDL-Mediated Cholesterol Trafficking in the Central Nervous System
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) and abnormally hyperphosphorylated intracellular tau filaments in neurons. Cholesterol metabolism has been extensively implicated in the pathogenesis of AD through biological, epidemiological, and genetic studies, with the APOE gene being the most reproducible genetic risk factor for the development of AD. The apolipoprotein E (ApoE) 4  genotype seems to be a disruptive element in high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-like-mediated cholesterol transport through the brain. 
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Biochemistry of Antioxidants and Their Mode of Action
Antioxidants are a class of a multitude of chemical substances clearly associated with large health benefits and lower risks of various age-related diseases.
  • 1.4K
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Acyclic Nucleic Acids with Phosphodiester Linkages
The pseudo-rotational flexibility of the ribonucleotide is considerably limited due to the anomeric effect, and RNA/RNA and RNA/DNA duplexes are generally more thermally stable than DNA/DNA duplexes. The rigidity of the cyclic scaffold has been considered important for the formation of thermally stable duplexes, and the unexpectedly high thermal stability of duplexes formed with the participation of LNA oligomers could serve as an excellent justification for this point of view. However, this generalization is not consistent with the behavior of Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNA), in which the heterocyclic bases are attached to a linear peptide-like backbone, since duplexes composed of RNA or DNA and PNA strands are far more stable than RNA/RNA and DNA/DNA ones. This phenomenon may be attributed to the absence of a negative charge in the backbone, such that the absence of repulsive interactions balances the entropic cost of proper spatial organization of the flexible PNA scaffolds. Nonetheless, the widely accepted importance of the cyclic sugar components for the stability of the duplexes could be questioned. There is another perspective that can be applied to the acyclic analogs of nucleic acids that is related to the origin of life. The synthetic efforts on acyclic analogs of nucleic acids and provides information on the most interesting features of selected classes of such compounds, are here described. The selection includes the following types of analogs: Flexible (FNA), Unlocked (UNA), Glycol (GNA), Butyl (BuNA), Threoninol (TNA) and Serinol Nucleic Acids (SNA). These classes of analogs are discussed in terms of their synthetic methods, the thermal stability of their homo- and hetero-duplexes and their applicability in biological and biochemical research and nanotechnology.
  • 1.4K
  • 10 Feb 2022
Topic Review
BET Family Proteins
The BET family of proteins consists of a series of proteins with two N-terminal tandem bromodomains and an exclusive extra terminal domain (ET) that play an important role in gene transcription through epigenetic regulation, with a prominent impact in the control of cell growth and differentiation.
  • 1.4K
  • 05 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Secrets of Flavonoid Synthesis in Mushroom Cells
Flavonoids are chemical compounds that occur widely across the plant kingdom. They are considered valuable food additives with pro-health properties, and their sources have also been identified in other kingdoms. Especially interesting is the ability of edible mushrooms to synthesize flavonoids. Mushrooms are usually defined as a group of fungal species capable of producing macroscopic fruiting bodies, and there are many articles considering the content of flavonoids in this group of fungi. Whereas the synthesis of flavonoids was revealed in mycelial cells, the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to produce flavonoids does not seem to be clearly resolved. This entry, as an overview of the latest key scientific findings on flavonoids in mushrooms, outlines and organizes the current state of knowledge on the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to synthesize this important group of compounds for vital processes. Putting the puzzle of the current state of knowledge on flavonoid biosynthesis in mushroom cells together, a universal scheme of studies to unambiguously decide whether the fruiting bodies of individual mushrooms are capable of synthesizing flavonoids that was proposed.
  • 1.4K
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus and Dementia
Dementia is reported to be common in those with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Type 2 diabetes contributes to common molecular mechanisms and an underlying pathology with dementia. Brain cells becoming resistant to insulin leads to elevated blood glucose levels, impaired synaptic plasticity, microglial overactivation, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuronal apoptosis, nutrient deprivation, TAU (Tubulin-Associated Unit) phosphorylation, and cholinergic dysfunction.
  • 1.4K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
The Origin of Geranylgeraniol and Farnesol
Isoprenoids are the output of the polymerization of five-carbon, branched isoprenic chains derived from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and its isomer, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). Isoprene units are consecutively condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (FPP and GGPP, respectively), necessary for the biosynthesis of several metabolites. Polyprenyl transferases and synthases use polyprenyl pyrophosphates as their natural substrates; however, it is known that free polyprenols, such as farnesol (FOH), and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can be incorporated into prenylated proteins, ubiquinone, cholesterol, and dolichols. Furthermore, FOH and GGOH have been shown to block the effects of isoprenoid biosynthesis inhibitors such as fosmidomycin, bisphosphonates, or statins in several organisms.
  • 1.4K
  • 13 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Anti-Obesity Properties of Polyphenols
The prevalence of obesity has steadily increased around the world over the past three decades. Polyphenols can be considered nutraceuticals and food supplements recommended for different syndromes. Polyphenols are a class of naturally occurring phytochemicals, some of which have been shown to modulate the physiological and molecular pathways involved in energy metabolism. Polyphenols could act in the stimulation of β-oxidation, in the inhibition of the differentiation of adipocytes, in counteracting oxidative stress, etc.
  • 1.4K
  • 26 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Base Excision Repair Mechanisms
Base excision repair (BER) corrects forms of oxidative, deamination, alkylation, and abasic single-base damage that appear to have minimal effects on the helix. Since its discovery in 1974, the field has grown in several facets: mechanisms, biology and physiology, understanding deficiencies and human disease, and using BER genes as potential inhibitory targets to develop therapeutics.
  • 1.4K
  • 26 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Canonical Hypoxia Signaling
The oxygen-sensing system is a complicated and elaborate system containing large molecular components, including hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) as the central regulator of oxygen homeostasis, prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs), Von Hippel-Lindau protein (pVHL) as the modulator of ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and the co-factors and downstream targets as functional contributors. It should be recognized that the PHDs-HIF-pVHL axis remains the best-characterized and central signaling in the oxygen sensing pathway, although novel mechanisms continue to be illuminated. In this entry, we summarize the current knowledge about canonical hypoxia signaling, including the function of HIF transcription factors, prolyl hydroxylation of HIFs, and pVHL.
  • 1.4K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Cancer Cell Fusion
"A major challenge in treating cancer is posed by intratumor heterogeneity, with different sub-populations of cancer cells within the same tumor exhibiting therapy resistance through different biological processes. These include therapy-induced dormancy, apoptosis reversal (anastasis), and cell fusion. Unfortunately, such responses are often overlooked or misinterpreted as “death” in commonly used preclinical assays.This entry highlights the dark side of cell fusion in metastasis and therapy resistance of solid tumors."
  • 1.4K
  • 27 Oct 2020
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