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All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review Video
Transgenerational-Epigenetic Inheritance and Immune System
Epigenetic modifications cause heritable changes in gene expression which are not due to alterations in underlying DNA sequence. Inside the eukaryotic nucleus, there is condense packing of DNA around histone proteins to constitute chromatin structure. Epigenetic modifications are caused by factors that alter chromatin structure. Some epigenetic factors are enzymes that regulate DNA methylation and histone modifications, non-coding RNA, and prions. An offspring inherits parental epigenetic modifications but most of them are deleted and reset during early developmental stages. Some epigenetic modifications are retained and persist across multiple generations. If any epigenetic modification is the result of a stimulus or immune response in one generation, such that the modification continues to be inherited in subsequent generations which are not subjected to the stimulus; and the inheritance continues beyond the 3rd generation in the female germline and 2nd generation in male, then the phenomenon is called transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (TGEI). This entry is focused on a review which discusses some examples of TGEI that are reported in association with  immune system development and disorders.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 May 2021
Topic Review
Sinoatrial Node in Single-Cell RNA Sequencing
Normal cardiac automaticity is dependent on the pacemaker cells of the sinoatrial node (SAN). Insufficient cardiac pacemaking leads to the development of sick sinus syndrome (SSS). The development of more effective treatments for SSS, including biological pacemakers, requires further understanding of these genes and signaling pathways. Compared with genetic models and bulk RNA sequencing, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology promises to advance the understanding of cellular phenotype heterogeneity and molecular regulation during SAN development.
  • 1.3K
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Endocytosis and Signaling Regulation
Cellular trafficking through the endosomal–lysosomal system is essential for the transport of cargo proteins, receptors and lipids from the plasma membrane inside the cells and across membranous organelles. By acting as sorting stations, vesicle compartments direct the fate of their content for degradation, recycling to the membrane or transport to the trans-Golgi network. To effectively communicate with their neighbors, cells need to regulate their compartmentation and guide their signaling machineries to cortical membranes underlying these contact sites. Endosomal trafficking is indispensable for the polarized distribution of fate determinants, adaptors and junctional proteins. Conversely, endocytic machineries cooperate with polarity and scaffolding components to internalize receptors and target them to discrete membrane domains. Depending on the cell and tissue context, receptor endocytosis can terminate signaling responses but can also activate them within endosomes that act as signaling platforms. Therefore, cell homeostasis and responses to environmental cues rely on the dynamic cooperation of endosomal–lysosomal machineries with polarity and signaling cues. 
  • 1.3K
  • 07 May 2022
Topic Review
Air Pollution Affects Placental DNA Methylation
The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept postulates that in utero exposures influence fetal programming and health in later life. Throughout pregnancy, the placenta plays a central role in fetal programming; it regulates the in utero environment and acts as a gatekeeper for nutrient and waste exchange between the mother and the fetus. Maternal exposure to air pollution, including heavy metals, can reach the placenta, where they alter DNA methylation patterns, leading to changes in placental function and fetal reprogramming. In this entry, we explore the current knowledge on placental DNA methylation changes associated with prenatal air pollution (including heavy metals) exposure and highlight its effects on fetal development and disease susceptibility.
  • 1.3K
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Genetics Matters
The understanding of how genetic information may be inherited through generations was established by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s when he developed the fundamental principles of inheritance. The science of genetics, however, began to flourish only during the mid-1940s when DNA was identified as the carrier of genetic information. The world has since then witnessed rapid development of genetic technologies, with the latest being genome-editing tools, which have revolutionized fields from medicine to agriculture. This entry walks through the historical timeline of genetics research and deliberates how this discipline might furnish a sustainable future for humanity.
  • 1.3K
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Metamerism
In biology, metamerism is the phenomenon of having a linear series of body segments fundamentally similar in structure, though not all such structures are entirely alike in any single life form because some of them perform special functions. In animals, metameric segments are referred to as somites or metameres. In plants, they are referred to as metamers or, more concretely, phytomers.
  • 1.3K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Physiological Role of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase in Eye
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways represent ubiquitous cellular signal transduction pathways that regulate all aspects of life (such as development of eye) and are frequently altered in disease. Once activated through phosphorylation, these MAPKs in turn phosphorylate and activate transcription factors present either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus, leading to the expression of target genes and, as a consequence, they elicit various biological responses. 
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Mar 2023
Topic Review
WNT Signaling Pathways in Skin Development
The WNT signaling pathway plays a critical role in a variety of biological processes, including development, adult tissue homeostasis maintenance, and stem cell regulation. Variations in skin conditions can influence the expression of the WNT signaling pathway.
  • 1.3K
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
The “3Ds” of Growing Kidney Organoids
A kidney organoid is a three-dimensional (3D) cellular aggregate grown from stem cells in vitro that undergoes self-organization, recapitulating aspects of normal renal development to produce nephron structures that resemble the native kidney organ. These miniature kidney-like structures can also be derived from primary patient cells and thus provide simplified context to observe how mutations in kidney-disease-associated genes affect organogenesis and physiological function.
  • 1.3K
  • 17 Feb 2023
Topic Review
microRNAs Related to Cleft Lip and Palate
Cleft lip and palate is one of the most common congenital birth defects and has a complex etiology. Either genetic or environmental factors, or both, are involved at various degrees, and the type and severity of clefts vary. One of the longstanding questions is how environmental factors lead to craniofacial developmental anomalies. 
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Regulation of Hedgehog Signal Transduction
The Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted proteins governs embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis in species ranging from insects to mammals. Deregulation of Hh pathway activity has been implicated in a wide range of human disorders, including congenital diseases and cancer. Hh exerts its biological influence through a conserved signaling pathway. Binding of Hh to its receptor Patched (Ptc), a twelve-span transmembrane protein, leads to activation of an atypical GPCR family protein and Hh signal transducer Smoothened (Smo), which then signals downstream to activate the latent Cubitus interruptus (Ci)/Gli family of transcription factors. Hh signal transduction is regulated by ubiquitination and deubiquitination at multiple steps along the pathway including regulation of Ptc, Smo and Ci/Gli proteins. 
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Cofilin Signaling
Three ADF/cofilin family members are expressed in mammals: ADF, cofilin-1, and cofilin-2. The first member ADF (also known as destrin), encoded by the gene DSTN in humans, was initially identified in the chick brain. Cofilin was discovered as an actin-interacting protein in the porcine brain. Later, Ono et al. identified two mammalian variants of cofilin, non-muscle type (also known as cofilin-1 and n-cofilin) and muscle type (also known as cofilin-2 and m-cofilin). In humans, cofilin-1 and cofilin-2 are encoded by the genes CFL1 and CFL2, respectively. Different isoforms of ADF/cofilin have qualitatively similar but quantitatively different effects on actin dynamics. To be noted, both ADF and cofilin show cooperative binding with actin filaments. Interestingly, cofilin-1 comprises almost 90% of the total ADF/cofilin family in CNS. Cofilin can bind to both G-actin and F-actin, exhibiting stronger affinities for the ADP-bound actins than the ATP- or ADP-Pi-bound forms. Cofilin binding to F-actin induces actin subunit rotation, enhances Pi release along the filament, and promotes filament severing in a concentration-dependent manner.
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Oct 2021
Topic Review
PRDM12 in Health and Diseases
PRDM12 is a member of the PRDI-BF1 (positive regulatory domain I-binding factor 1) homologous domain (PRDM)-containing protein family, a subfamily of Kruppel-like zinc finger proteins, controlling key processes in the development of cancer. PRDM12 is expressed in a spatio-temporal manner in neuronal systems where it exerts multiple functions. PRDM12 is essential for the neurogenesis initiation and activation of a cascade of downstream pro-neuronal transcription factors in the nociceptive lineage.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Yes-Associated Protein
Yes-associated protein (YAP) and WW domain-containing transcription regulator protein 1 (WWTR1, also known as TAZ) are transcriptional coactivators in the Hippo signaling pathway. Both are well-known regulators of cell proliferation and organ size control, and they have significant roles in promoting cell proliferation and differentiation. The roles of YAP and TAZ in stem cell pluripotency and differentiation have been extensively studied.
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Adventitious Root Formation in Apples
Adventitious root (AR) formation is required for the vegetative propagation of economically important horticultural crops, such as apples. Asexual propagation is commonly utilized for breeding programs because of its short life cycle, true-to-typeness, and high efficiency. The lack of AR formation from stem segments is a barrier to segment survival.
  • 1.2K
  • 31 Mar 2022
Topic Review
AUTS2 Gene
AUTS2 is a large gene spanning 1.2 M bases on human chromosome 7q11.22 (A). It consists of 19 exons, the first 6 of which are separated by long introns at the 5′ end, whilst the remaining 13 are compact with clustered smaller introns at the 3′ end. The full-lengthAUTS2transcript encodes a protein with 1259 amino acids (aa) in humans (NM_015570) and 1261 aa in mice (NM_177047), although various isoforms are generated by alternative splicing and multiple transcription start sites (TSS).
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Animal Models of Autism
Over the past, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders has progressively increased, however, no clear diagnostic markers and specifically targeted medications for autism have emerged. As a result, neurobehavioral abnormalities, neurobiological alterations in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and the development of novel ASD pharmacological therapy necessitate multidisciplinary collaboration.
  • 1.1K
  • 14 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Osteogenesis and Its Hormone Regulation
Hormones are major contributors to osteogenesis and deviations in hormone expression can lead to an undesired bone formation outcome. Bone development is hormone dependent, with each hormone having its own receptor in bone tissue and controlled by several endocrine glands. Therefore, these pathways are susceptible to endocrine disruption by environmental insults, including EDCs, that can cause osteogenic defects.
  • 1.1K
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
Selenium Nanoparticles
Dietary selenium (Se) intake within the physiological range is critical to maintain various biological functions, including antioxidant defence, redox homeostasis, growth, reproduction, immunity, and thyroid hormone production. Chemical forms of dietary Se are diverse, including organic Se (selenomethionine, selenocysteine, and selenium-methyl-selenocysteine) and inorganic Se (selenate and selenite). Previous studies have largely investigated and compared the health impacts of dietary Se on agricultural stock and humans, where dietary Se has shown various benefits, including enhanced growth performance, immune functions, and nutritional quality of meats, with reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, and finally enhanced thyroid health and fertility in humans. The emergence of nanoparticles presents a novel and innovative technology. Notably, Se in the form of nanoparticles (SeNPs) has lower toxicity, higher bioavailability, lower excretion in animals, and is linked to more powerful and superior biological activities (at a comparable Se dose) than traditional chemical forms of dietary Se. As a result, the development of tailored SeNPs for their use in intensive agriculture and as an innovative candidate for therapeutic drugs for human pathologies is being actively explored. 
  • 1.1K
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Autonomy in Stem Cell-Derived Embryoids
The experimental production of complex structures resembling mammalian embryos (e.g., blastoids, gastruloids) from pluripotent stem cells in vitro has become a booming research field. Since some of these embryoid models appear to reach a degree of complexity that may come close to viability, a broad discussion has set in with the aim to arrive at a consensus on the ethical implications with regard to acceptability of the use of this technology with human cells. The present text focuses on developmental autonomy of embryoids which is an aspect of great ethical relevance and must receive increased attention during the preparation of new legal regulations, but which has not been included yet in the recently issued ISSCR Guidelines.  
  • 1.1K
  • 10 Nov 2021
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