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Topic Review
Economy Car
An economy car is an automobile that is designed for low-cost purchase and operation. Typical economy cars are small (compact or subcompact), lightweight, and inexpensive to buy. Economy car designers are forced by stringent design constraints to be inventive. Many innovations in automobile design were originally developed for economy cars, such as the Ford Model T and the Austin Mini. The alternative approach, other than innovating to build a low-cost car, is to build a stripped-down, no-frills version of a conventional car. Gordon Murray, the Formula 1 and McLaren F1 designer, said when designing his new Murray T.25 city car: "I would say that building a car to sell for six thousand pounds and designing that for a high-volume production, where you have all the quality issues under control, is a hundred times more difficult than designing a McLaren F1, or even a racing car. It is certainly the biggest challenge I've ever had from a design point of view."
  • 4.2K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Instrumental Temperature Record
The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures. Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations, buoys and ships around the globe. The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series, which starts in 1659. The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850. In recent decades, more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths allows estimates of ocean heat content, but these samples do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets.
  • 4.2K
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Gas Sensors in Food Industry
Volatile compounds not only contribute to the distinct flavors and aromas found in foods and beverages, but can also serve as indicators for spoilage, contamination, or the presence of potentially harmful substances. As the odor of food raw materials and products carries valuable information about their state, gas sensors play a pivotal role in ensuring food safety and quality at various stages of its production and distribution. Among gas detection devices that are widely used in the food industry, metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) gas sensors are of the greatest importance. Ongoing research and development efforts have led to significant improvements in their performance, rendering them immensely useful tools for monitoring and ensuring food product quality.
  • 4.2K
  • 05 Dec 2023
Topic Review
NRF2
Nuclear factor erythroid 2‐related factor 2 (NRF2) is a transcription factor that regulates the cellular defense against toxic and oxidative insults through the expression of genes involved in oxidative stress response and drug detoxification. NRF2 activation renders cells resistant to chemical carcinogens and inflammatory challenges. In addition to antioxidant responses, NRF2 is involved in other cellular processes, including metabolism and inflammation, and its functions are beyond the originally envisioned. NRF2 activity is tightly regulated through a complex transcriptional and post-translational network that enables it to orchestrate the cell’s response and adaptation to various pathological stressors for the homeostasis maintenance. Elevated or decreased NRF2 activity by pharmacological and genetic manipulations of NRF2 activation is associated with many metabolism- or inflammation-related diseases. Emerging evidence shows that NRF2 lies at the center of a complex regulatory network and establishes NRF2 as a truly pleiotropic transcription factor. Here we summarize the complex regulatory network of NRF2 activity and its roles in metabolic reprogramming, unfolded protein response, proteostatsis, autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis, inflammation, and immunity.
  • 4.2K
  • 17 Jul 2020
Topic Review
Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are seamless nanotubes made of single or multiple layers of graphene sheets rolled around a central axis with the advantages of being lightweight and having a perfect hexagonal connection structure.
  • 4.2K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Markov Chain Applications to Education
The theory of Markov chains is a smart combination of Linear Algebra and Probability theory offering ideal conditions for modelling situations depending on random variables. Markov chains have found important applications to many sectors of the human activity. In this work a finite Markov chain is introduced representing mathematically the teaching process which is based on the ideas of constructivism for learning. Interesting conclusions are derived and a measure is obtained for the teaching effectiveness. An example on teaching the derivative to fresher university students is also presented illustrating our results.
  • 4.2K
  • 03 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Music and Sound Interventions for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is characterized by symptoms including: intrusive memories, hyper-arousal, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, and negative alterations in mood or cognition that develop following exposure to traumatic life events.
  • 4.2K
  • 15 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Types of Snow
Types of snow can be designated by the shape of its flakes, description of how it is falling, and by how it collects on the ground. A blizzard and snow storm indicate heavy snowfalls over a large area, snow squalls give heavy snowfalls over narrow bands, while flurries are used for the lightest snowfall. Types which fall in the form of a ball, rather than a flake, are known as graupel, with sleet and snow grains as types of graupel. Once on the ground, snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy, granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing, and crud or eventually ice once it packs down into a dense drift after multiple melting and refreezing cycles. When powdering, snow drifts with the wind or ground blizzard, sometimes to the depth of several metres. After attaching to hillsides, blown snow can evolve into a snow slab, which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes.
  • 4.2K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Social Stratification
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on various attributes such as wealth, social status, and power. This system categorizes people into different strata, influencing their access to resources, opportunities, and privileges. Social stratification is a pervasive phenomenon that shapes social interactions and plays a crucial role in determining an individual's life chances and societal positioning.
  • 4.2K
  • 25 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Urban Morphology and Sustainable Urban Form
This qualitative grounded theory study is to unpack a conceptual model for assessing the interrelation between urban morphology and sustainable urban form. As it is cited in this entry, although numerous researches have been carried out on the topic of "sustainable urban form" and "urban morphology", yet, there seems to be a substantial gap in the study of the mutual relationship between the two. As the importance is not evaluated in the previous literature, there was no explored model to validate the relation. Consequently, this study was intended to gain a conceptual model of the necessity of conducting systematic model evaluations of sustainable urban form based on the typo morphology as a field of inquiry.
  • 4.2K
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Cellulose Nanomaterials
Cellulose is the most abundant renewable source on Earth. Due to several of their characteristics, such as their renewability, sustainability, and eco-friendliness, nanocellulose-based materials are arousing growing interest from researchers in various fields of study and applications. 
  • 4.2K
  • 20 Dec 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Antifungals and Drug Resistance
Antifungal drugs prevent topical or invasive fungal infections (mycoses) either by stopping growth of fungi (termed fungistatic) or by killing the fungal cells (termed fungicidal). Antibiotics also prevent bacterial infections through either bacteriostatic or bactericidal mechanisms. These microorganisms successfully develop resistance against conventional drugs that are designed to kill or stop them from multiplying. When a fungus no longer responds to antifungal drug treatments and continues to grow, this is known as antifungal drug resistance. Bacteria have an amazing capacity to become resistant to antibiotic action as well, and the effectiveness of the scarce antifungal arsenal is jeopardised by this antibiotic resistance, which poses a severe threat to public health.
  • 4.2K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Bohr–van Leeuwen Theorem
The Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem states that when statistical mechanics and classical mechanics are applied consistently, the thermal average of the magnetization is always zero. This makes magnetism in solids solely a quantum mechanical effect and means that classical physics cannot account for diamagnetism.
  • 4.2K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Xeno Nucleic Acid
Xeno nucleic acid (XNA) is a synthetic alternative to the natural nucleic acids DNA and RNA as information-storing biopolymers that differs in the sugar backbone. As of 2011, at least six types of synthetic sugars have been shown to form nucleic acid backbones that can store and retrieve genetic information. Research is now being done to create synthetic polymerases to transform XNA. The study of its production and application has created a field known as xenobiology. Although the genetic information is still stored in the four canonical base pairs (unlike other nucleic acid analogues), natural DNA polymerases cannot read and duplicate this information. Thus the genetic information stored in XNA is "invisible" and therefore useless to natural DNA-based organisms.
  • 4.2K
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Self-Amplifying mRNA Vaccine
The core principle behind mRNA vaccines is to encode the antigen in the mRNA and then to deliver the transcript to the host cell cytoplasm using a non-viral delivery system, allowing antigen expression and induction of an antigen-specific immune response. Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) is a type of mRNA that also encodes viral replicase, which enables the RNA to self-replicate upon delivery into the cell.
  • 4.2K
  • 13 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Open-Source Innovation
Open-source innovation is rarely included in the government’s innovation measures. Firms that take the lead in open-source have greater benefit losses and need to bear considerable risk. For open-source innovation participants with high knowledge and a technology spillover effect, innovation willingness is closely related to whether the spillover benefits can be moderately compensated. When the open-source model is not formed and the problem of the “free ride” is common, the government should give support to open-source enterprises, such as offering tax subsidies. In this way, enterprises’ open-source innovation power can be stimulated. Trust is an important factor for enterprises to build a good cooperative relationship and sustainable development. The spontaneous resistance to hitchhiking behavior and the enthusiasm for secondary innovation both depend on the construction of a trust relationship between enterprises. Strengthening enterprise interaction in the open-source community and building a smooth talent exchange and learning channel can better cultivate this trust.
  • 4.2K
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Single-Crystal Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese Cathode Research
The booming electric vehicle industry continues to place higher requirements on power batteries related to economic-cost, power density and safety. The positive electrode materials play an important role in the energy storage performance of the battery. The nickel-rich NCM (LiNixCoyMnzO2 with x + y + z = 1) materials have received increasing attention due to their high energy density, which can satisfy the demand of commercial-grade power batteries. Prominently, single-crystal nickel-rich electrodes with s unique micron-scale single-crystal structure possess excellent electrochemical and mechanical performance, even when tested at high rates, high cut-off voltages and high temperatures.
  • 4.2K
  • 27 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Exoskeletons
Exoskeletons are orthoses of a certain kind—devices that work in harmony and parallel with their users (humans) in order to augment physical performance and are able to complete certain tasks or movements. In order to achieve such coordination, the device must be fitted to the user’s dimensions. 
  • 4.2K
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Machine Learning Applications in Failure Predictions
Machine Learning (ML) is a subclass of artificial intelligence (AI) that can be defined as a semi-automated system in which computers create an algorithm by learning from observed data. Machine learning algorithms create a model based on training data and use it to make predictions or judgments without having to be explicitly programmed to do so. In recent years, decision makers and the scientific community have paid close attention to the use of machine learning in risk and reliability assessment. Currently, quite a good amount of work is being carried out in mine equipment failure and reliability assessments and predictive maintenance analysis. A machine learning approach can be used for predicting failures and also to identify important parameters that predict failures.
  • 4.2K
  • 09 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Torino Scale
The Torino scale is a method for categorizing the impact hazard associated with near-Earth objects (NEOs) such as asteroids and comets. It is intended as a communication tool for astronomers and the public to assess the seriousness of collision predictions, by combining probability statistics and known kinetic damage potentials into a single threat value. The Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale is a similar, but more complex scale. Near-Earth objects with a Torino scale of 1 pop up every couple of months or so and may last a few weeks until they have a longer observation arc.
  • 4.2K
  • 21 Nov 2022
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