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Topic Review
Cargo Molecules in Secretory Granule
The pancreatic β-cell is purpose-built for the production and secretion of insulin, the only hormone that can remove glucose from the bloodstream. Insulin is kept inside miniature membrane-bound storage compartments known as secretory granules (SGs), and these specialized organelles can readily fuse with the plasma membrane upon cellular stimulation to release insulin. The luminal components of the insulin SG can be functionally segregated into four groups. These are cargo molecules, luminal enzymes and chaperones, ions (and their transporters and channels), and sorting receptors.
  • 677
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
O3 Effect on Kidney Damage
Ozone (O3) is a reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can interact with cellular components and cause oxidative stress. Following said logic, if O3 induces such a stressful milieu, how does it exert antioxidant functions? This is mediated by controlled toxicity produced by low concentrations of O3, which enhance the cell’s suppliance of antioxidant properties without causing any further damage. O3 therapy has been shown to be effective when applied before or after traumatic renal procedures, whether caused by ischemia, xenobiotics, chronic damage, or other models.
  • 677
  • 22 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Antisense Long Non-Coding RNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Transcriptome complexity is emerging as an unprecedented and fascinating domain, especially by high-throughput sequencing technologies that have unveiled a plethora of new non-coding RNA biotypes. Several sense–antisense transcript pairs have been recently annotated, especially from mammalian genomes, and an understanding of their evolutionary sense and functional role for human health and diseases is only beginning. Antisense long non-coding RNAs ((lncRNAs) dysregulation is significantly involved in hepatocarcinogenesis, where they can act as oncogenes or oncosuppressors, thus playing a key role in tumor onset, progression, and chemoradiotherapy response. Mechanistically, antisense lncRNAs regulate gene expression by exploiting various molecular mechanisms shared with other ncRNA molecules, and exploit special mechanisms on their corresponding sense gene due to sequence complementarity, thus exerting epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and translational controls.
  • 677
  • 29 May 2023
Topic Review
E2F-RB-p53 Pathway in Tumor Suppression
The transcription factor E2F links the RB pathway to the p53 pathway upon loss of function of pRB, thereby playing a pivotal role in the suppression of tumorigenesis. E2F fulfills a major role in cell proliferation by controlling a variety of growth-associated genes. The activity of E2F is controlled by the tumor suppressor pRB, which binds to E2F and actively suppresses target gene expression, thereby restraining cell proliferation. Signaling pathways originating from growth stimulative and growth suppressive signals converge on pRB (the RB pathway) to regulate E2F activity. In most cancers, the function of pRB is compromised by oncogenic mutations, and E2F activity is enhanced, thereby facilitating cell proliferation to promote tumorigenesis. Upon such events, E2F activates the Arf tumor suppressor gene, leading to activation of the tumor suppressor p53 to protect cells from tumorigenesis. ARF inactivates MDM2, which facilitates degradation of p53 through proteasome by ubiquitination (the p53 pathway). P53 suppresses tumorigenesis by inducing cellular senescence or apoptosis. Hence, in almost all cancers, the p53 pathway is also disabled. 
  • 676
  • 03 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Mucormycosis and Genetic Manipulation in Mucorales
The emerging fungal infection caused by Mucorales is known as mucormycosis. The main reasons for this current attraction to study mucormycosis are its high lethality, the lack of effective antifungal drugs, and its recent increased incidence. The most contemporary example of the emergence character of mucormycosis is the epidemics declared in several Asian countries as a direct consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. 
  • 674
  • 02 Apr 2022
Topic Review
The Involvement of GSTs in Insect Chemoperception
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are ubiquitous key enzymes with different activities as transferases or isomerases. As key detoxifying enzymes, GSTs are expressed in the chemosensory organs. They fulfill an essential protective role because the chemosensory organs are located in the main entry paths of exogenous compounds within the body. 
  • 674
  • 27 Feb 2023
Topic Review
miRNAs as Biomarkers in Disease
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent a class of small, non-coding RNAs with the main roles of regulating mRNA through its degradation and adjusting protein levels. In recent years, extraordinary progress has been made in terms of identifying the origin and exact functions of miRNA, focusing on their potential use in both the research and the clinical field. 
  • 674
  • 25 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Innovative Therapies Targeting Drug Resistant in ccRCC
A thorough study of Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC) shows that com- bining tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) shows promising results in addressing the tumor-promoting influences of abnormal immunologi- cal and molecular biomarkers in metastatic Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC). These abnormal biomarkers enhance drug resistance, support tumor growth, and trigger cancer- related genes. Ongoing clinical trials are testing new treatment options that appear more effective than earlier ones. However, more research is needed to confirm their long-term safety use and potential side effects. This study highlights vital molecular and immunologi- cal biomarkers associated with drug resistance in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC). Furthermore, this study identifies a number of promising drug candidates and biomarkers that serve as significant contributors to the enhancement of the overall survival of ccRCC patients. Consequently, this article offers pertinent insights on both recently completed and ongoing clinical trials, recommending further toxicity study for the prolonged use of this treatment strategy for patients with metastatic ccRCC, while equipping researchers with invaluable information for the progression of current treatment strategies.
  • 674
  • 20 Jan 2025
Topic Review
Nicotinamide N-Methyltransferase and Urological Cancers
Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) catalyzes the N-methylation reaction of nicotinamide, using S-adenosyl-L-methionine as the methyl donor. Enzyme overexpression has been described in many non-neoplastic diseases, as well as in a wide range of solid malignancies. This entry aims to report and discuss evidence available in scientific literature, dealing with NNMT expression and the potential involvement in main urologic neoplasms, namely, renal, bladder and prostate cancers.
  • 674
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Remodeling in Cardiac Diseases
Mitochondria undergo structural and functional remodeling to meet the cell demand in response to the intracellular and extracellular stimulations, playing an essential role in maintaining normal cellular function. Merging evidence demonstrated that dysregulation of mitochondrial remodeling is a fundamental driving force of complex human diseases, highlighting its crucial pathophysiological roles and therapeutic potential.
  • 673
  • 03 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Reporter Genes for Brain Imaging
The use of molecular imaging technologies for brain imaging can not only play an important supporting role in disease diagnosis and treatment but can also be used to deeply study brain functions. With the support of reporter gene technology, optical imaging has achieved a breakthrough in brain function studies at the molecular level. Reporter gene technology based on traditional clinical imaging modalities is also expanding. By benefiting from the deeper imaging depths and wider imaging ranges now possible, these methods have led to breakthroughs in preclinical and clinical research.
  • 673
  • 09 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Optical Technologies for Single-Cell Analysis on Microchips
Cell analysis at the single-cell level is of great importance to investigate the inherent heterogeneity of cell populations and to understand the morphology, composition, and function of individual cells. With the continuous innovation of analytical techniques and methods, single-cell analysis on microfluidic chip systems has been extensively applied for its precise single-cell manipulation and sensitive signal response integrated with various detection techniques, such as optical, electrical, and mass spectrometric analyses.
  • 673
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Heterologous Expression of Human SoLute Carrier in Yeast
For more than 20 years, yeast has been a widely used system for the expression of human membrane transporters. Among them, more than 400 are members of the largest transporter family, the SoLute Carrier (SLC) superfamily. SLCs play critical roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis by transporting nutrients, ions, and waste products. Based on their involvement in drug absorption and in several human diseases, they are considered emerging therapeutic targets.
  • 673
  • 20 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Physiological Role of Bile Acids by Gut Microbiome
Bile acids (BAs) are produced from cholesterol in the liver and are termed primary BAs. Primary BAs are conjugated with glycine and taurine in the liver and then released into the intestine via the gallbladder. After the deconjugation of glycine or taurine by the gut microbiome, primary BAs are converted into secondary BAs by the gut microbiome through modifications such as dehydroxylation, oxidation, and epimerization. 
  • 673
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Leptin and Cancer
Leptin is an obesity-associated adipokine that is known to regulate energy metabolism and reproduction and to control appetite via the leptin receptor. Recent work has identified specific cell types other than adipocytes that harbor leptin and leptin receptor expression, particularly in cancers and tumor microenvironments, and characterized the role of this signaling axis in cancer progression. 
  • 672
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Effects of Nutrient Stress on Plant DNA Methylation
Nutrient limitation is major environmental stress that reduces plant growth, productivity and quality. Globally, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) limitations are ubiquitous in soil. Therefore, N and P deficiencies are the main constraints of food production under low-fertilization conditions, while under high-fertilization conditions, large amounts of N and P fertilization can cause large-scale environmental pollution. In addition to N and P, breeding crops with more iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) is also one of the priorities, since large numbers of people eat grains due to Fe and Zn deficiencies. Furthermore, there are essential nutrients for plants, such as sulfur (S), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). DNA methylation in plants plays a vital role in the response to nutrient changes and is involved in controlling nutrient homeostasis. 
  • 672
  • 10 Jun 2022
Topic Review
G-Quadruplex Regulation
In eukaryotes, mRNAs translation is mainly mediated in a cap-dependent or cap-independent manner. The latter is primarily initiated at the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) in the 5′-UTR of mRNAs. It has been reported that the G-quadruplex structure (G4) in the IRES elements could regulate the IRES activity.
  • 671
  • 07 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Alternative Electron Sources for Cytochrome P450s Catalytic Cycle
The functional significance of cytochrome P450s (CYP) enzymes is their ability to catalyze the biotransformation of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. P450 enzymes catalyze regio- and stereoselective oxidations of C-C and C-H bonds in the presence of oxygen as a cosubstrate. Initiation of cytochrome P450 catalytic cycle needs an electron donor (NADPH, NADH cofactor) in nature or alternative artificial electron donors such as electrodes, peroxides, photo reduction, and construction of enzymatic “galvanic couple”.
  • 671
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Blood-Derived Microvesicles in Breast Cancer
Modifying and changing (energy) metabolism is a hall mark of cancer. But how to appraise metabolic changes in cancer patients? Cancer and benign cells shed microvesicles (MV) into the blood. These MV can be easily extracted and isolated. Targeted mass spectrometry of MV is able to differentiate not only between healthy controls and cancer patients, but between molecular breast cancer subtypes. Changes detected in some of these metabolites are indicators for a worse prognosis. In summary, metabolic profiling of MV yields promising biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of breast cancer. 
  • 669
  • 29 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Androgen Receptor in Hormone Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer
Breast cancer subtypes expressing hormone receptors (HR+ BCa) have a good prognosis and respond to first-line endocrine therapy (ET). However, the majority of HR+ BCa patients exhibit intrinsic or acquired ET resistance (ET-R) and rapid onset of incurable metastatic BCa. With the failure of conventional ET, limited targeted therapy exists for ET-R HR+ BCa patients. The androgen receptor (AR) in HR-negative BCa subtypes is emerging as an attractive alternative target for therapy. The AR drives Luminal AR (LAR) triple-negative breast cancer progression, and LAR patients consistently exhibit positive clinical benefits with AR antagonists in clinical trials. In contrast, the function of the AR in HR+ BCa is more conflicting. AR in HR+ BCa correlates with a favorable prognosis, and yet, the AR supports the development of ET-R BCa. While AR antagonists were ineffective, ongoing clinical trials with a selective AR modulator have shown promise for HR+ BCa patients.
  • 668
  • 09 Jan 2024
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