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Topic Review
Endogenous Opioids and Stem Cells
Opioids are considered the oldest drugs known by humans and have been used for sedation and pain relief for several centuries. Nowadays, endogenous opioid peptides are divided into four families: enkephalins, dynorphins, endorphins, and nociceptin/orphanin FQ. They exert their action through the opioid receptors (ORs), transmembrane proteins belonging to the su-per-family of G-protein-coupled receptors, and are expressed throughout the body; the receptors are the δ opioid receptor (DOR), μ opioid receptor (MOR), κ opioid receptor (KOR), and nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOP). Endogenous opioids are mainly studied in the central nervous system (CNS), but their role has been investigated in other organs, both in physiological and in pathological conditions. Here, it is presented a revision of their role in stem cell (SC) biology, since these cells are a subject of great scientific interest due to their peculiar features and their involvement in cell-based therapies in regenerative medicine. In particular, it will be focused on the endogenous opioids’ ability to modulate SC proliferation, stress response (to oxidative stress, starvation, or damage following ischemia–reperfusion), and differentiation towards different lineages, such as neuro-genesis, vasculogenesis, and cardiogenesis.
  • 859
  • 28 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Industrial Enyzmes
Industrial enzymes are enzymes that are commercially used in a variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemical production, biofuels, food & beverage, and consumer products. Due to advancements in recent years, biocatalysis through isolated enzymes is considered more economical than use of whole cells. Enzymes may be used as a unit operation within a process to generate a desired product, or may be the product of interest. Industrial biological catalysis through enzymes has experienced rapid growth in recent years due to their ability to operate at mild conditions, and exceptional chiral and positional specificity, things that traditional chemical processes lack. Isolated enzymes are typically used in hydrolytic and isomerization reactions. Whole cells are typically used when a reaction requires a co-factor. Although co-factors may be generated in vitro, it is typically more cost-effective to use metabolically active cells.
  • 859
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Ultrasound-Mediated Drug Delivery and Gene Therapy
Ultrasound (US) is a nearly innocuous and widely available imaging technique with a well-established role in various diagnostic applications. Diagnostic US techniques uses high frequency ultrasound waves to view real-time tissue and organs inside the human body. The use of US as a drug delivery facilitator was first described in the mid 90s, using the physical transient increased cell membrane permeability from sonoporation. Subsequent research reported the enhanced biophysical effects of ultrasound by incorporation of MBs.
  • 858
  • 05 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Renal Primary Neuroendocrine Neoplasms
Primary renal neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are rare neoplasms. The 2016 WHO classification of renal tumors classified renal neuroendocrine neoplasms into well-differentiated NET, small-cell NEC, and large-cell NEC
  • 858
  • 07 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Ferroptosis in Brief
Ferroptosis is a newly discovered, iron-dependent form of programmed cell death characterized by the lethal accumulation of lipid peroxides within cell membranes. This process, distinct from apoptosis or necrosis, is driven by disruptions in cellular iron homeostasis and subsequent oxidative damage. Ferroptosis plays a pivotal role in various physiological processes and diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and ischemic injuries. Understanding the mechanisms and regulation of ferroptosis holds promise for the development of novel therapeutic strategies, making it a burgeoning field of research in cell biology and medicine with potential applications across a wide range of health-related challenges.
  • 858
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
ER Stress Responses
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a critical organelle, storing the majority of calcium and governing protein translation. Thus, it is crucial to keep the homeostasis in all ER components and machineries. The ER stress sensor pathways, including IRE1/sXBP1, PERK/EIf2α and ATF6, orchestrate the major regulatory circuits to ensure ER homeostasis. The embryonic or postnatal lethality that occurs upon genetic depletion of these sensors reveals the essential role of the ER stress pathway in cell biology. In contrast, the impairment or excessive activation of ER stress has been reported to cause or aggravate several diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, NAFDL/NASH, obesity and cancer. Being part of innate immunity, myeloid cells are the first immune cells entering the inflammation site. Upon entry into a metabolically stressed disease environment, activation of ER stress occurs within the myeloid compartment, leading to the modulation of their phenotype and functions.
  • 857
  • 26 May 2021
Topic Review
Organic Small Molecules in Pain-Management
There are different types of anti-inflammatory agents, including small molecules, peptides, and antibodies. In this entry, there will be a focus on small molecules for anti-inflammatory treatments as they have been the center of traditional medicine. Small molecule drugs are compounds with low molecular weight that can easily enter the body and modulate biochemical processes to treat medical conditions.
  • 856
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
MT4-MMP in Cancer Progression
MT4-MMP (or MMP-17) belongs to the membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs), a distinct subset of the MMP family that is anchored to the cell surface, in this case by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) motif. Its expression in a variety of cancers is well documented.
  • 855
  • 03 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Diverse Calpain Family in Trypanosomatidae
The Trypanosomatidae family, class Kinetoplastea, encompasses exclusively parasitic protozoa, some of which cause important human diseases. About 37 million people worldwide are infected either with Trypanosoma brucei, the etiological agent of African sleeping sickness; Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease; or with different species of the genus Leishmania, responsible for different clinical manifestations known as leishmaniasis. The current therapy to treat these diseases is unsatisfying due to their low efficacy, high cost, toxicity, and tough administration routes, like parenteral. Therefore, the search for more effective drugs is still an urgent need, which can lead to alternative strategies, such as a repurposed approach with compounds already approved for human usage. In view of this scenario, calpains are an interesting target due to the intense efforts to develop means of identifying selective inhibitors in this group of calcium-dependent cysteine peptidases. Since these enzymes are involved in crucial physiological roles in mammals, their deregulated activity is implicated in several pathophysiological processes, especially in fibrotic diseases and neurological disorders. Moreover, trypanosomatids harbor a large and diverse family of calpain sequences in their genomes, comprising a wide range of associated domains, differential gene expression among life-cycle forms, and ubiquitous distribution in the parasite cell body. However, due to the difficulties in assaying calpain activity in these microorganisms, there is still an open question: are trypanosomatid calpains proteolytically active?
  • 854
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Salivary Gland Tissue Engineering Approaches
Salivary gland regeneration is important for developing treatments for radiation-induced xerostomia, Sjögren’s syndrome, and other conditions that cause dry mouth. Culture conditions adopted from tissue engineering strategies have been used to recapitulate gland structure and function to study and regenerate the salivary glands. The purpose of this review is to highlight current trends in the field, with an emphasis on soluble factors that have been shown to improve secretory function in vitro.
  • 854
  • 21 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Pulmonary Fibrosis
Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is the end-stage consequence of various interstitial lung diseases (ILD). It is a chronic progressive disease with an average survival of 3–5 years after diagnosis. The pathological features of PF are the abnormal activation and proliferation of myofibroblasts and the extraordinary deposition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). 
  • 854
  • 30 May 2023
Topic Review
Multiple Signaling Neurodevelopmental Pathways
Understanding the autistic brain and the involvement of genetic, non-genetic, and numerous signaling pathways in the etiology and pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is complex, as is evident from various studies. Apart from multiple developmental disorders of the brain, autistic subjects show a few characteristics like impairment in social communications related to repetitive, restricted, or stereotypical behavior, which suggests alterations in neuronal circuits caused by defects in various signaling pathways during embryogenesis. Most of the research studies on ASD subjects and genetic models revealed the involvement of mutated genes with alterations of numerous signaling pathways like Wnt, hedgehog, and Retinoic Acid (RA).
  • 854
  • 12 Jul 2021
Topic Review
OGT Protein Interaction Network (OGT-PIN)
Interactions between proteins are essential to any cellular process and constitute the basis for molecular networks that determine the functional state of a cell. With the technical advances in recent years, an astonishingly high number of protein–protein interactions has been revealed. However, the interactome of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferase (OGT), the sole enzyme adding the O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) onto its target proteins, has been largely undefined. To that end, we collated OGT interaction proteins experimentally identified in the past several decades and created a rigorously curated database OGT-Protein Interaction Network (OGT-PIN).
  • 851
  • 23 Sep 2021
Topic Review
B Cells in Autoimmunity
B cells are key players in this relationship because activated and differentiated B cells produce secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), which binds commensal bacteria to preserve a healthy microbial ecosystem.
  • 850
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
Agonists for Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors
Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors that modulate diverse aspects of development, reproduction, and energy homeostasis. This receptor superfamily includes receptors for vitamin D, steroid hormones, thyroid hormones and retinoids, as well as a large number of orphan receptors. NRs are composed of six functionally distinct regions (termed A to F). The N-terminal AB region is highly variable and contains a constitutionally active transactivation function-1 (AF-1) motif. The central C region (a DNA-binding region) is highly conserved among NRs and contains two zinc finger motifs that make contact with specific nucleotide sequences, termed hormone response elements. The C-terminal D, E and F regions are required for ligand binding and receptor dimerization. In most NRs, these regions also contain a second highly conserved transcriptional activation function-2 (AF-2) motif, which is important for ligand-dependent transcription.
  • 850
  • 07 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Fatty Acid Metabolism Reprogramming in Prostate Cancer
Fatty acids metabolism is rewired significantly in prostate cancer (PCa). Although PCa can be treated with hormone therapy, after prolonged treatment, castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) can develop and can lead to increased mortality. Both whole-body fatty acid (FA) metabolism in PCa patients and cellular FA metabolism play important roles in PCa origination and development. FA metabolism may provide potential candidate targets for the treatment or diagnosis of PCa.
  • 850
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Beta-ketoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) Synthase III
In enzymology, a β-ketoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] synthase III (EC 2.3.1.180) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are acetyl-CoA and malonyl-[acyl-carrier-protein], whereas its 3 products are acetoacetyl-[acyl-carrier-protein], CoA, and CO2. This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, to be specific those acyltransferases transferring groups other than aminoacyl groups. This enzyme participates in fatty acid biosynthesis. β-Ketoacyl-acyl-carrier-protein synthase III is involved in the dissociated (or type II) fatty-acid biosynthesis system that occurs in plants and bacteria. The role of FabH in fatty acid synthesis has been described in Streptomyces glaucescens, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Streptomyces coelicolor.
  • 850
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Choroidal Mast Cells and Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) remains a leading cause of vision loss in elderly patients. Its etiology and progression are, however, deeply intertwined with various cellular and molecular interactions within the retina and choroid. Choroidal mast cells are strategically located in close proximity to the choroidal vasculature, enabling their active involvement in modulation of angioinflammatory processes.
  • 850
  • 09 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Sphingolipids in Viral Infections
Sphingolipids (SLs) are highly abundant components of cellular membranes and as such, are essentially involved in their biophysical and signaling properties. A complex metabolic network consisting of enzymes catalyzing their synthesis, modification (phosphorylation, glycosylation) and breakdown regulates accumulation of sphingolipid species and thereby the sphingolipid pool at rheostat conditions, and this can undergo substantial changes in response to metabolic and external challenges. This has been excellently reviewedand will therefore just be briefly re-iterated below.
  • 848
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Their Extracellular Vesicles
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a major component of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and play an important role in tumor progression. MSCs remodel the extracellular matrix, participate in the epithelial–mesenchymal transition, promote the spread of metastases, and inhibit antitumor immune responses in the TME; however, there are also data pertaining to the antitumor effects of MSCs. MSCs activate the cell death mechanism by modulating the expression of proteins involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, angiogenesis receptors, and proapoptotic proteins. One of the main ways in which MSCs and TME interact is through the production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) by cells.
  • 848
  • 01 Jun 2022
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