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Topic Review
Gamma-Sarcoglycanopathy
Limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMDs) represent a group of muscle diseases due to monogenic mutations encoding muscle proteins that are defective for heterozygous and homozygous mutations prevalent in certain regions.
  • 1.8K
  • 20 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Multiple Trace Theory
Multiple trace theory is a memory consolidation model advanced as an alternative model to strength theory. It posits that each time some information is presented to a person, it is neurally encoded in a unique memory trace composed of a combination of its attributes. Further support for this theory came in the 1960s from empirical findings that people could remember specific attributes about an object without remembering the object itself. The mode in which the information is presented and subsequently encoded can be flexibly incorporated into the model. This memory trace is unique from all others resembling it due to differences in some aspects of the item's attributes, and all memory traces incorporated since birth are combined into a multiple-trace representation in the brain. In memory research, a mathematical formulation of this theory can successfully explain empirical phenomena observed in recognition and recall tasks.
  • 1.8K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Cyrcadian Rhythm, Mood, and Temporal Patterns of Chocolate
Taking small amounts of chocolate, in the morning at breakfast at the onset of the active phase, helps speed up resynchronization time. The high flavonoid contents in chocolate promote cardioprotection, metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, and neuromodulation with direct actions on brain function, neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and mood. Cocoa products and especially chocolate are foodstuffs originating from South America. Cocoa is obtained from the seeds of the Theobroma cacao tree, which are then dried, shelled, fermented, and ground with other substances such as sugar, fat, and other flavorings to produce the wide variety of chocolate available on the market, from dark to milk variations.
  • 1.8K
  • 10 Aug 2022
Topic Review
AMP-activated Protein Kinase
We live and to do so we must breathe and eat, so are we a combination of what we eat and breathe? Here we will consider this question, and the role in this respect of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Emerging evidence suggests that AMPK facilitates central and peripheral reflexes that coordinate breathing and oxygen supply, and contributes to central regulation of feeding and food choice. We propose, therefore, that oxygen supply to the body is aligned with not only the quantity we eat, but also nutrient-based diet selection, and that the cell-specific expression pattern of AMPK subunit isoforms is critical to appropriate system alignment in this respect. If this is the case, then aberrant cell-specific changes in the expression of AMPK subunit isoforms could give rise, in part, to known associations between a wide variety of conditions associated with metabolic disorder.
  • 1.8K
  • 10 May 2021
Topic Review
Demyelination and Remyelination Strategies for Multiple Sclerosis
All licensed medications for multiple sclerosis (MS) target the immune system. Albeit promising preclinical results demonstrated disease amelioration and remyelination enhancement via modulating oligodendrocyte lineage cells, most drug candidates showed only modest or no effects in human clinical trials. This might be due to the fact that remyelination is a sophistically orchestrated process that calls for the interplay between oligodendrocyte lineage cells, neurons, central nervous system (CNS) resident innate immune cells, and peripheral immune infiltrates and that this process may somewhat differ in humans and rodent models used in research. 
  • 1.8K
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
NLRP3 Inflammasome and Skeletal Muscle
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD-), leucine-rich repeat (LRR-) and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) is a protein coded by the Nlrp3 (CIAS1) gene and is composed of an amino-terminal pyrin domain (PYD), a central nucleotide-binding domain (NACHT), and a C-terminal leucine rich repeat (LRR) motif. To date, NLRP3 has been extensively studied in the heart, where its effects and actions have been broadly documented in numerous cardiovascular diseases. 
  • 1.8K
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Body Weight and Metabolic Rate Changes in Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a known auto-immune disease that presents mainly in the teenage years with irresistible sleep attacks. Patients with narcolepsy, especially NT1, have been found to have a high prevalence of obesity and other metabolic derangements. Compared to controls, patients with narcolepsy are more likely to be obese and have higher BMIs and waist circumferences. According to recent research, weight gain in narcolepsy patients may be higher during the disease's outset. Furthermore, the available data did not show any appreciable alterations in the levels of CSF melanin-concentrating hormone, plasma and CSF leptin, or serum growth hormone in relation to weight gain. Other mechanisms have been proposed, including a reduction in sympathetic tone, hormonal changes, changes in eating behavior and physical activity, and genetic predisposition. The association between increased body mass index and narcolepsy is well-recognized; the relationship between narcolepsy and other metabolic measures, such as body fat/muscle distribution and metabolic rate independent of BMI, is not well documented, and the available evidence is inconsistent. Future longitudinal studies with larger sample sizes are needed to assess BMR in patients with narcolepsy under a standard protocol at the outset of narcolepsy, with regular follow-up.
  • 1.8K
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
TNAP in Central Nervous System
Tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) is an ectoenzyme bound to the plasma membranes of numerous cells via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) moiety. TNAP is one of many proteins localized to Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), and is highly abundant in human and rodent cerebral microvessels [33]. There are four alkaline phosphatase (AP) isoenzymes in humans and they include: TNAP, germ cell alkaline phosphatase (GCAP), intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), and placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP). Although TNAP is ubiquitous in many tissue, it is most highly expressed in bone, liver, intestine, kidney, and brain, while the three other AP isoenzymes are expressed in the tissues for which they are named. TNAP is also highly expressed in cerebral microvessels.
  • 1.8K
  • 10 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Clinical Symptoms of Valproate-Induced Metabolic Syndrome
Valproic acid (VPA) and its salts (sodium calcium magnesium and orotic) are psychotropic drugs that are widely used in neurology and psychiatry. The long-term use of VPA increases the risk of developing adverse drug reactions (ADRs), among which metabolic syndrome (MetS) plays a special role. MetS belongs to a cluster of metabolic conditions such as abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, high blood glucose, high serum triglycerides, and low serum high-density lipoprotein. Valproate-induced MetS (VPA-MetS) is a common ADR that needs an updated multidisciplinary approach to its prevention and diagnosis.
  • 1.8K
  • 05 Jun 2023
Topic Review
ALS
The site of origin of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), although unsettled, is increasingly recognized as being cortico-fugal, which is a dying-forward process primarily starting in the corticomotoneuronal system. 
  • 1.8K
  • 12 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Alpha-Synuclein in Neurons
Accumulation of the neuronal presynaptic protein alpha-synuclein within proteinaceous inclusions represents the key histophathological hallmark of a spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders, referred to by the umbrella term a-synucleinopathies. Even though alpha-synuclein is expressed predominantly in neurons, pathological aggregates of the protein are also found in the glial cells of the brain. In Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, alpha-synuclein accumulates mainly in neurons forming the Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, whereas in multiple system atrophy, the protein aggregates mostly in the glial cytoplasmic inclusions within oligodendrocytes. In addition, astrogliosis and microgliosis are found in the synucleinopathy brains, whereas both astrocytes and microglia internalize alpha-synuclein and contribute to the spread of pathology. The mechanisms underlying the pathological accumulation of alpha-synuclein in glial cells that under physiological conditions express low to non-detectable levels of the protein are an area of intense research. Undoubtedly, the presence of aggregated alpha-synuclein can disrupt glial function in general and can contribute to neurodegeneration through numerous pathways. 
  • 1.8K
  • 17 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Melatonin and Chronic Pain
Preclinical as well as human studies indicate that melatonin is essential for a physiological sleep state, promotes analgesia and is involved in immunometabolic signaling by regulating neuroinflammatory pathways. Experimental and clinical neuromodulation studies for chronic pain treatment suggest that neurostimulation therapies such as spinal cord stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation and dorsal root ganglion stimulation have an impact on circulating inflammatory mediators in blood, cerebrospinal fluid and saliva. 
  • 1.8K
  • 23 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Transient Receptor Potential Channels in Migraine Pathophysiology
Migraine is a chronic neurological disorder that affects approximately 12% of the population. The cause of migraine headaches is not yet known, however, when the trigeminal system is activated, neuropeptides such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P (SP) are released, which cause neurogenic inflammation and sensitization. Advances in the understanding of migraine pathophysiology have identified new potential pharmacological targets. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have been the focus of attention in the pathophysiology of various pain disorders, including primary headaches. Genetic and pharmacological data suggest the role of TRP channels in pain sensation and the activation and sensitization of dural afferents. TRP channels are widely expressed in the trigeminal system and brain regions which are associated with the pathophysiology of migraine and furthermore, co-localize several neuropeptides that are implicated in the development of migraine attacks. Moreover, there are several migraine trigger agents known to activate TRP channels. Based on these, TRP channels have an essential role in migraine pain and associated symptoms, such as hyperalgesia and allodynia. Mammalian TRP channels are divided into seven subfamilies based on their homology of amino acid sequences: canonical or classic (TRPC), vanilloid (TRPV), melastatin (TRPM), nonmechanoreceptor potential C (NOMP-like, TRPN1) polycystin (TRPP), mucolipin (TRPML), and ankyrin (TRPA). 
  • 1.8K
  • 10 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Melittin
Melittin, a 26-amino acid peptide, is the main component of the venom of four honeybee species and exhibits neuroprotective actions. Melittin alleviates HT22 in vivo and in vitro oxidative stress injury induced by Aβ25–35; For the first time, melittin has been reported to enhance cognitive function in a learning memory-deficit model; Melittin ameliorating mechanisms were observed via the nuclear translocation of Nrf2, stimulating 1-HO production and the regulation of the TrkB/CREB/BDNF pathway.
  • 1.8K
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Lacunar Stroke
Lacunar strokes are small subcortical infacts that occur in the territory of one perforatng artery. Lacunar infarcts represent one of the most frequent subtypes of ischemic strokes and may represent the first recognizable manifestation of a progressive disease of the small perforating arteries, capillaries, and venules of the brain, defined as cerebral small vessel disease.
  • 1.7K
  • 15 Feb 2022
Topic Review
SF1 Neurons
SF1 neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus are a specific lead in the brain’s ability to sense glucose levels and conduct insulin and leptin signaling in energy expenditure and glucose homeostasis.
  • 1.7K
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Cancer and Neurodegenerative Diseases
Conditions such as Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s diseases (PD) are less prevalent in cancer survivors and, overall, cancer is less prevalent in subjects with these neurodegenerative disorders. In addition to epidemiologic data, there is also evidence of a complex biological interconnection, with genes, proteins, and pathways often showing opposite dysregulation in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.
  • 1.7K
  • 04 Jun 2021
Topic Review
The Aducanumab Controversy
Finding treatments and cures for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been extremely challenging and progress has been slow with many disappointments. Progress achieved using animals in research has rarely been replicated in humans. An example of the animal-to-human disconnect is the poor performance of amyloid-clearing antibodies in human trials. On June 7, aducanumab, an anti-amyloid monoclonal antibody, was granted accelerated approval by the FDA despite lack of support from its own Advisory Committee. In my opinion as an Alzheimer's researcher and internal medicine physician, this ill-considered decision is a mistake that will cause major setbacks in AD drug discovery, will harm the AD community and will lead to distrust of future treatments that actually work. This article reflects the opinion of this author alone. 
  • 1.7K
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Tau Protein and Tauopathies
Tau, a member of the microtubule-associated proteins, is a known component of the neuronal cytoskeleton; however, in the brain tissue, it is involved in other vital functions beyond maintaining the cellular architecture. The pathologic tau forms aggregates inside the neurons and ultimately forms the neurofibrillary tangles. Intracellular and extracellular accumulation of different tau isoforms, including dimers, oligomers, paired helical filaments and tangles, lead to a highly heterogenous group of diseases named “Tauopathies”.
  • 1.7K
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Alopecia Associated with Antiseizure Medication
The mainstay of treatment for epilepsy is antiseizure medications (ASMs). Approximately 70% of individuals with epilepsy obtain seizure freedom with adequate ASMs therapy. Adverse effects of antiseizure medications (ASMs) remain one of the major causes of non-adherence. Cosmetic side effects (CSEs) are among the most commonly reported side effects of ASMs. Alopecia is one of the CSEs that has a high intolerance rate leading to poor therapeutical compliance. 
  • 1.7K
  • 04 Sep 2023
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