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Topic Review
Acid and Alkali Taste Sensation
Living organisms rely on pH levels for a multitude of crucial biological processes, such as the digestion of food and the facilitation of enzymatic reactions. Among these organisms, animals, including insects, possess specialized taste organs that enable them to discern between acidic and alkaline substances present in their food sources.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Platelet Biology
Platelets are generated from megakaryocytes in a multi-step process called thrombopoiesis regulated by thrombopoietin. Thrombopoietin stimulates its receptor in megakaryocytes to induce the genesis of pro-platelets via a mechanism activated by low platelet counts. Platelet counts in blood are controlled by the rates of production and removal, involving mechanisms of platelet clearance, activation or ageing. Platelets are the most numerous circulating cell type (≈200,000/µL blood in humans) with an immune function. 
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Functions of Astrocytes after a Brain Disease
Neurons and glia (astrocytes, radial glia, oligodendroglia, and microglia) are the neural cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Glial cells have different functions; microglia are the resident macrophages in the CNS, oligodendrocytes are responsible for myelin production, NG2-positive glia is consistent with an oligodendrocyte progenitor function, and astrocytes play an important role both in homeostasis and in diseases. 
  • 999
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Exercise-Boosted Mitochondrial Remodeling in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a movement disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons resulting in dopamine deficiency in the striatum. Given the estimated escalation in the number of people with PD, interventions aimed at minimizing morbidity and improving quality of life are crucial. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are intrinsic factors related to PD pathogenesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that patients with PD might benefit from various forms of exercise in diverse ways, from general health improvements to disease-specific effects and, potentially, disease-modifying effects.
  • 997
  • 23 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Chromatin and Cancer
A hallmark of cancers is uncontrolled cell proliferation, frequently associated with an underlying imbalance in gene expression. This transcriptional dysregulation observed in cancers is multifaceted and involves chromosomal rearrangements, chimeric transcription factors, or altered epigenetic marks. Traditionally, chromatin dysregulation in cancers has been considered a downstream effect of driver mutations. Disruption of this large-scale chromatin in proliferating cancerous cells in conventional chemotherapies induces DNA damage and provides a positive feedback loop for chromatin rearrangements and tumor diversification. Consequently, the surviving cells from these chemotherapies become tolerant to higher doses of the therapeutic reagents, which are significantly toxic to normal cells. Furthermore, the disorganization of chromatin induced by these therapies accentuates nuclear fragility, thereby increasing the invasive potential of these tumors.
  • 997
  • 29 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Calcium Sources to Somatic Release of Serotonin
The soma, dendrites and axon of neurons may display calcium-dependent release of transmitters and peptides. Such release is named extrasynaptic for occurring in absence of synaptic structures. Emphasis is given to the somatic release of serotonin by the classical leech Retzius neuron, which has allowed detailed studies on the fine steps from excitation to exocytosis. Trains of action potentials induce transmembrane calcium entry through L-type channels. For action potential frequencies above 5 Hz, summation of calcium transients on individual action potentials activates the second calcium source: ryanodine receptors produce calcium-induced calcium release. The resulting calcium tsunami activates mitochondrial ATP synthesis to fuel transport of vesicles to the plasma membrane. Serotonin that is released maintains a large-scale exocytosis by activating the third calcium source: serotonin autoreceptors coupled to phospholipase C promote IP3 production. Activated IP3 receptors in peripheral endoplasmic reticulum release calcium that promotes vesicle fusion. The Swiss-clock workings of the machinery for somatic exocytosis has a striking disadvantage. The essential calcium-releasing endoplasmic reticulum near the plasma membrane hinders the vesicle transport, drastically reducing the thermodynamic efficiency of the ATP expenses and elevating the energy cost of release. 
  • 997
  • 09 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Small-Molecule Inhibitors Targeting Proteasome-Associated Deubiquitinases
The 26S proteasome is the principal protease for regulated intracellular proteolysis. This multi-subunit complex is also pivotal for clearance of harmful proteins that are produced throughout the lifetime of eukaryotes. Recent structural and kinetic studies have revealed a multitude of conformational states of the proteasome in substrate-free and substrate-engaged forms. These conformational transitions demonstrate that proteasome is a highly dynamic machinery during substrate processing that can be also controlled by a number of proteasome-associated factors. Essentially, three distinct family of deubiquitinases–USP14, RPN11, and UCH37–are associated with the 19S regulatory particle of human proteasome. USP14 and UCH37 are capable of editing ubiquitin conjugates during the process of their dynamic engagement into the proteasome prior to the catalytic commitment. In contrast, RPN11-mediated deubiquitination is directly coupled to substrate degradation by sensing the proteasome’s conformational switch into the commitment steps. 
  • 996
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Chronic Inflammation in Cancer Cachexia
Cachexia, a type of metabolic syndrome linked to the disease, is associated with a dysregulation of metabolic pathways. Cancer Cachexia is a subtle condition that reduces patients’ quality of life by impairing their response to therapy and survival. Inflammatory mediators that may play a role in the pathogenesis of neoplastic cachexia, for example, overlap with those that may play a role in the pathogenesis of obesity. Cachexia is a complication of cancer-related malnutrition associated with catabolic/hypermetabolic changes.
  • 996
  • 05 May 2022
Topic Review
Macrophage/Monocyte-Endothelial Cell Crosstalk in Liver
Inflammation is a hallmark of liver pathology, where macrophages and endothelial cells are pivotal players in promoting and sustaining disease progression. Understanding the drivers and mediators of these interactions will provide valuable information on what may contribute to liver resilience against disease. In this entry, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of macrophages and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) in homeostasis and liver pathology, with a particular focus on Trem-2 as a key mediator of these interactions.
  • 995
  • 24 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Liver Fibrosis in HIV-Infected Individuals
Liver fibrosis (LF) is a common problem in HIV-infected individuals. Among all used drugs in anti-retroviral treatment (ART), "first-generation" NRTIs carry the greater risk for LF, with integrase strand transfer and entry inhibitors showing minimal risk. Overall most ART drugs are safe and do not seem to cause liver fibrosis when no other live comorbidities co-exist
  • 995
  • 12 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Inorganic Polyphosphate
Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP), a simple anionic polymer consisting of even hundreds of orthophosphate units, is a universal molecule present in both simple and complex organisms. PolyP controls homeostatic processes in animals, such as blood coagulation, tissue regeneration, and energy metabolism. Furthermore, this polymer is a potent regulator of inflammation and influences host immune response in bacterial and viral infections. Disturbed polyP systems have been related to several pathological conditions, including neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer, but researchers lack a full understanding of polyP biogenesis and mechanistic insights into the pathways through which polyP may act.
  • 995
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Rieske Iron-Sulfur Protein in COPD and Pulmonary Hypertension
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is currently the third leading cause of death worldwide. The development of pulmonary hypertension (PH) accounts for the high mortality rate in COPD patients. Recent studies from the researchers' laboratory and others have highlighted the important role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling in the development of COPD and associated PH. ROS are primarily generated in mitochondrial complex III in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Rieske iron-sulfur protein (RISP), a catalytic subunit of mitochondrial complex III, is the major player in the generation of ROS. RISP plays a critical role in pulmonary vasoconstriction, remodeling, and hypertension.
  • 994
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Disabled-2 Structure and Function
Disabled-2 (DAB2), a key adaptor protein in clathrin mediated endocytosis, is implicated in the regulation of key signalling pathways involved in homeostasis, cell positioning and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT).
  • 994
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Protein Quality Control Systems in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
SARS-CoV-2’s structure and mechanism of infection have been well characterized. The virus comprises a lipid envelope studded with spike (S) proteins. These spikes facilitate viral entry into host cells by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors on the cell surface. Following attachment, the virus enters the cell by endocytosis. Its genetic material consists of a single-stranded RNA molecule, which encodes structural proteins, non-structural proteins (NSP), and accessory proteins. Once inside, the viral RNA is translated into proteins, including those for replication and the formation of new virus particles.
  • 994
  • 24 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Fibroblast Growth Factor 23
FGF23 is a bone-derived hormone that is essential for regulating vitamin D and phosphate homeostasis. 
  • 993
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Ferroptosis Modulation as Therapeutic Target for Glioblastoma Treatment
Glioblastoma multiforme is a lethal disease and represents the most common and severe type of glioma. Drug resistance and the evasion of cell death are the main characteristics of its malignancy, leading to a high percentage of disease recurrence and the patients’ low survival rate. Exploiting the modulation of cell death mechanisms could be an important strategy to prevent tumor development and reverse the high mortality and morbidity rates in glioblastoma patients. Ferroptosis is a recently described type of cell death, which is characterized by iron accumulation, high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-containing phospholipids, and deficiency in lipid peroxidation repair. Several studies have demonstrated that ferroptosis has a potential role in cancer treatment and could be a promising approach for glioblastoma patients.
  • 993
  • 08 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Leuconostoc mesenteroides Strains
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) share several beneficial effects on human organisms, such as bioactive metabolites’ release, pathogens’ competition and immune stimulation. 
  • 991
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Core PCP Proteins in Coordinating Cilia Orientation
As exemplified by the unidirectionally beating cilia of multi-ciliated cells, various epithelial cells polarize not only along the apical-basal axis (inside–outside axis) of epithelial tissues, but also on the plane of epithelial tissues. The latter cell polarity, which is perpendicular to the apical–basal axis, is referred to as planar cell polarity (PCP). Pioneering research using the wings of Drosophila melanogaster identified a group of proteins, core PCP proteins, that orchestrate the establishment of PCP.
  • 991
  • 21 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Three Members of the Synuclein Family
Synucleins are a family of small aggregation-prone proteins consisting of three members, alpha, beta and gamma-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein is the most investigated member of the family due to its involvement in neurodegenerative diseases called synucleinopatjies. Synucleins easily change their conformation and may be converted to toxic aggregates. They are in the focus of attention of biochemists, molecular and cellular biologists who try to reveal their normal functions and role  in diseaases.  
  • 991
  • 03 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Aberrant Stress Granule Dynamics
Stress granules are membrane-less organelles formed through the process of liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) under certain stress conditions, such as oxidative stress and heat shock, among others.
  • 990
  • 12 Oct 2021
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