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Topic Review
Electrohydrodynamic Pump Structure and Material
In 1961, a theory relating to ionic wind was developed by Robinson, who proposed the possibility of developing functional electrostatic blowers, namely electrohydrodynamic (EHD) gas pumps. 
  • 2.5K
  • 24 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Cyclophane-Modified AgNPs
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are an attractive alternative to plasmonic gold nanoparticles. The relative cheapness and redox stability determine the growing interest of researchers in obtaining selective plasmonic and electrochemical (bio)sensors based on silver nanoparticles. Cyclophanes are well known for their great receptor properties and are of particular interest in the creation of metal nanoparticles due to a variety of cyclophane 3D structures and unique redox abilities. The chemistry of cyclophanes offers a whole arsenal of approaches: exocyclic ion coordination, association, stabilization of the growth centers of metal nanoparticles, as well as in reduction of silver ions.
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Green Production from BSFL
The purpose of this entry is to reveal the lipid and protein contents in black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) for the sustainable production of protein and energy sources. It has been observed from studies in the literature that the larval lipid and protein contents vary with the rearing conditions as well as the downstream processing employed. The homogenous, heterogenous and microbial-treated substrates via fermentation are used to rear BSFL and are compared in this review for the simultaneous production of larval protein and biodiesel. Moreover, the best moisture content and the aeration rate of larval feeding substrates are also reported in this review to enhance the growth of BSFL. As the downstream process after harvesting starts with larval inactivation, various related methods have also been reviewed in relation to its impact on the quality/quantity of larval protein and lipids. Subsequently, the other downstream processes, namely, extraction and transesterification to biodiesel, are finally epitomized from the literature to provide a comprehensive review for the production of unconventional protein and lipid sources from BSFL feedstock. Incontrovertibly, the review accentuates the great potential use of BSFL biomass as a green source of protein and lipids for energy production in the form of biodiesel. The traditional protein and energy sources, preponderantly fishmeal, are unsustainable naturally, pressingly calling for immediate substitutions to cater for the rising demands. Accordingly, this review stresses the benefits of using BSFL biomass in detailing its production from upstream all the way to downstream processes which are green and economical at the same time.
  • 2.5K
  • 09 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Boron-Silicon Junction
The discovery of the extremely shallow amorphous boron-crystalline silicon heterojunction occurred during the development of highly sensitive, hard and robust detectors for low-penetration-depth ionizing radiation, such as ultraviolet photons and low-energy electrons (below 1 keV). For many years it was believed that the junction created by the chemical vapor deposition of amorphous boron on n-type crystalline silicon was a shallow p-n junction, although experimental results could not provide evidence for such a conclusion. Only recently, quantum-mechanics based modelling revealed the unique nature and the formation mechanism of this new junction. Here, the entry reviews the initiation and the history of understanding the a-B/c-Si interface (henceforth called the “boron-silicon junction”).
  • 2.5K
  • 17 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Process Analytical Technology
Various frameworks and methods, such as quality by design (QbD), real time release test (RTRT), and continuous process verification (CPV), have been introduced to improve drug product quality in the pharmaceutical industry. The methods recognize that an appropriate combination of process controls and predefined material attributes and intermediate quality attributes (IQAs) during processing may provide greater assurance of product quality than end-product testing. The efficient analysis method to monitor the relationship between process and quality should be used. Process analytical technology (PAT) was introduced to analyze IQAs during the process of establishing regulatory specifications and facilitating continuous manufacturing improvement. Although PAT was introduced in the pharmaceutical industry in the early 21st century, new PAT tools have been introduced during the last 20 years.
  • 2.5K
  • 22 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Bioethanol Production Using Seawater
  Bioethanol has many environmental and practical benefits as a transportation fuel. It is one of the best alternatives to replace fossil fuels due to its liquid nature, which is similar to the gasoline and diesel fuels traditionally used in transportation. In addition, bioethanol production technology has the capacity for negative carbon emissions, which is vital for solving the current global warming dilemma. However, conventional bioethanol production takes place based on an inland site and relies on freshwater and edible crops (or land suitable for edible crop production) for production, which has led to the food vs. fuel debate. Establishing a coastal marine biorefinery (CMB) system for bioethanol production that is based on coastal sites and relies on marine resources (seawater, marine biomass and marine yeast) could be the ultimate solution. In this paper, we aim to evaluate the environmental impact of using seawater for bioethanol production at coastal locations as a step toward the evaluation of a CMB system. Hence, a life cycle assessment for bioethanol production was conducted using the proposed scenario, named Coastal Seawater, and compared to the conventional scenario, named Inland Freshwater (IF). The impact of each scenario in relation to climate change, water depletion, land use and fossil depletion was studied for comparison. The Coastal Seawater scenario demonstrated an improvement upon the conventional scenario in all the selected impact categories. In particular, the use of seawater in the process had a significant effect on water depletion, showing an impact reduction of 31.2%. Furthermore, reductions were demonstrated in natural land transformation, climate change and fossil depletion of 5.5%, 3.5% and 4.2%, respectively. This indicates the positive impact of using seawater and coastal locations for bioethanol production and encourages research to investigate the CMB system.
  • 2.5K
  • 21 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Monoclonal Gammopathies of Neurological Significance
Monoclonal gammopathies of neurological significance include a widespread range of manifestations, ranging from slowly progressive sensitive demyelinating polyneuropathy with anti-MAG antibody to subacute rapidly progressive forms as in POEMS syndrome (Polyneuropathy, Organomegaly, Endocrinopathy, Monoclonal gammopathy, Skin changes)  or neurolymphomatosis.
  • 2.5K
  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Bionic
Bionic is an implementation of the standard C library, developed by Google for its Android operating system. It differs from the GNU C Library (glibc) in being designed for devices with less memory and processor power than a typical Linux system. It is a combination of new code and code from FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD released under a BSD license, rather than glibc, which uses the GNU Lesser General Public License. This difference was important in the early days of Android, when static linking was common, and is still helpful in introducing Android to software companies used to proprietary operating systems, who can be wary of the LGPL, and unclear about the differences between it and the full GNU General Public License (GPL). Bionic is a C library for use with the Linux kernel, and provides libc, libdl, and libm (libpthread functionality is part of libc, not a separate library as on some other systems). This differs from the BSD C libraries that bionic shares code with, because they require a BSD kernel.
  • 2.5K
  • 30 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Buddhist Paths to Liberation
The Buddhist tradition gives a wide variety of descriptions of the Buddhist path (magga) to liberation. The classical description is the Noble Eightfold Path, described in the Sutta Pitaka. This description is preceded by even older descriptions in the Sutta Pitaka, and elaborated in the various Buddhist traditions. A number of other paths have been developed and described within the various traditions.
  • 2.5K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
AFM-IR
AFM-IR (atomic force microscope infrared-spectroscopy) is one of a family of techniques that are derived from a combination of two parent instrumental techniques; infrared spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy (SPM). The term was first used to denote a method that combined a tuneable free electron laser with an atomic force microscope (a type of SPM) equipped with a sharp probe that measured the local absorption of infrared light by a sample; it required that the sample be coupled to an infrared-transparent prism and be less than 1μm thick. It improved the spatial resolution of photothermal AFM-based techniques from microns to circa 100 nm. Recording the amount of infrared absorption as a function of wavelength or wavenumber creates an infrared absorption spectra that can be used to chemically characterize and even identify unknown materials. Recording the infrared absorption as a function of position can be used to create chemical composition maps that show the spatial distribution of different chemical components. Novel extensions of the original AFM-IR technique and earlier techniques have enabled the development of bench-top devices capable of nanometer spatial resolution, that do not require a prism and can work with thicker samples, and thereby greatly improving ease of use and expanding the range of samples that can be analysed. One of these techniques has achieved spatial resolutions down to around 20 nm, with a sensitivity down to the scale of molecular monolayer AFM-IR is related to techniques such as tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS), scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM), nano-FTIR and other methods of vibrational analysis with scanning probe microscopy.
  • 2.5K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Museum Education
Museum education involves using a museum’s resources and collections to facilitate learning for diverse audiences. It includes activities like tours, workshops, and interactive exhibits that promote active, inquiry-based learning. Focused on accessibility and inclusivity, museum education aims to engage visitors, enhance their understanding, and foster a deeper appreciation for cultural, historical, or scientific content to foster active citizenship and lifelong learning in a non-formal learning context. Museum education uses collections and exhibits to engage audiences through hands-on, inquiry-based learning. By integrating digital tools and interactive technologies, it enhances learning through immersive and distance-based experiences. This approach promotes active engagement, critical thinking, and meaning-making, transforming traditional teaching methods. Museums serve as inclusive spaces where knowledge—embodied in artifacts and digital mediators—supports cognitive, emotional, and social development, fostering deeper connections with culture and history.
  • 2.5K
  • 06 Jan 2025
Topic Review
Epstein–Barr Virus and Human Papillomavirus
High-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) is etiologically associated with the development and progression of cervical cancer, although other factors are involved. Overall, reports suggest a potential link of EBV to the development of cervical carcinomas in two possible pathways: (1) Infecting epithelial cells, thus synergizing with HR-HPV (direct pathway), and/or (2) infecting tissue-infiltrating lymphocytes that could generate local immunosuppression (indirect pathway). However, further studies are needed for a better understanding of the EBV/HR-HPV coinfection role in cervical carcinogenesis, in which in situ hybridization (ISH) and/or immunohistochemical methods are mandatory for discriminating the cell type infected by EBV.
  • 2.5K
  • 04 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Environmental Ageing of Polymers and Polymer Composites
Polymers and polymer composites are often exposed to elevated temperatures, mechanical stress, water and humid air environments, where their performance is negatively impacted by environmental ageing, reducing their service lifetime.
  • 2.5K
  • 15 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Visualization Techniques in Building Energy Simulation and Monitoring
Data visualization has become relevant in the framework of the evolution of big data analysis. Being able to understand data collected in a dynamic, interactive, and personalized way allows for better decisions to be made when optimizing and improving performance. Although its importance is known, there is a gap in the research regarding its design, choice criteria, and uses in the field of building energy consumption. Therefore, the state-of-the-art of visualization techniques used in the field of energy performance, in particular by considering two types of building analysis: simulation and monitoring are discussed. Likewise, data visualizations are categorized according to goals, level of detail and target users. Visualization tools published in the scientific literature, as well as those currently used in the IoT platforms and visualization software, were analyzed. The overview can be used as a starting point when choosing the most efficient data visualization for a specific type of building energy analysis.
  • 2.5K
  • 09 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Vaccine Technology in Bovine Theileriosis
Theileriosis is a blood piroplasmic disease that adversely affects the livestock industry, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by haemoprotozoan of the Theileria genus, transmitted by hard ticks and which possesses a complex life cycle. The infection and treatment method (ITM) is currently used in the control and prevention of T. parva infection, and recombinant vaccines are still under evaluation. The use of gene gun immunization against T. parva infection has been recently evaluated.
  • 2.5K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Hydrogen Peroxide Formation and Elimination in Mammalian Cells
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a compound involved in some mammalian reactions and processes. It modulates and signals the redox metabolism of cells by acting as a messenger together with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and the nitric oxide radical (•NO), activating specific oxidations that determine the metabolic response. 
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Dental Implant Surfaces
Bone healing process at the interface between bone and implant surface includes haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. The modifications of titanium dental implant surface that are globally marketed focus on early bone response to switch more quickly from inflammation to proliferation by roughening the surface at the micro-scale. Microstructural modifications change cell behavior around the modified surface, successfully enhancing osseointegration, but they have their own limits. For example, such a modified surface cannot avoid implant failure resulting from shear force because of the occlusal load on the bone-implant interface. This type of failure is able to be bypassed by providing the implant macrodesign with threads, which convert shear force into compressive force that the interface is more resistant to. Dental clinicians and researchers should consider both the implant macrostructure and microstructure to better understand clinical bone response to the dental implant, although this topic is based on the surface microstructural modification. 
  • 2.5K
  • 23 Oct 2020
Topic Review
IoT Intrusion Detection Taxonomy
The taxonomy includes (1) IoT security attacks, (2) IoT architecture layers, (3) intrusion-detection systems for IoT, (3) DL techniques used in the IoT IDSs, (4) common datasets used in the evaluation of the DL systems, and (5) their classification strategies. The different areas included in the taxonomy are in various ways interconnected as root causes of IoT security vulnerabilities in IoT and/or solutions to counter such causes.
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Endocytic Pathways
Endocytosis is a shared process by which molecules, proteins, lipids, and liquids are sorted inside the cell via formation of intermediate vesicles. Vesicle formation occurs at the plasma membrane, where ligand receptors, binding proteins, and structural proteins are localized. After their internalization, the vesicles containing protein receptors or soluble molecules undergo a round of recycling, eventually leading to the fusion of the vesicle with an intracellular organelle. Such a process is an essential hallmark in all cell types—it regulates major cellular functions such as antigen presentation, intracellular signaling cascades, cell polarity, and synaptic transmission. Moreover, it is required to remove aged and dead cells from the body and is part of the defense against microbes. Given its importance, it is not surprising that even subtle perturbations affecting the endocytic machinery often impair cell function and cause several pathological conditions, such as cancer, and neurological and storage diseases. Finally, endocytosis represents an important cellular route for targeted drug-delivery in many diseases.
  • 2.5K
  • 15 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Copper/Carbon Composites Prepared by Infiltration Technique
The liquid metal infiltration of carbon preformed with copper and its alloys is already an established and well-known process. It is extensively used by the electronic industry to produce heat sinks of power electronics and electric contacts and sliding electric contacts. The advantage of the process is its ability to produce near net shape components with high volume fractions of carbon at a relatively low price. The process is carried out in a vacuum and with low applied pressure. However, a strong dependence on the temperature of infiltration and its precise control is significant for the sound final product. For certain pair carbon matrix–copper alloys, different results could be obtained according to the infiltration temperature. If the temperature is too low, the solidification may occur prior to complete infiltration (high final porosity). When the temperature is too high, undesirable reactions may occur at the fiber–matrix interface (e.g., corrosive carbides). Therefore, there are still a lot of scientific papers pushing this technology to new directions and over old limits. Publications inside scientific journals within this field deal with composite materials for sliding electrical contact and electrical contact materials, sealing materials, parts of brake disks, pantograph strips for high-speed railways, other electric and mechanical applications and even for wall surface shields in future fusion devices.
  • 2.5K
  • 04 Aug 2022
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