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Topic Review
T Cell Immune Checkpoint Molecules in HIV
T cell exhaustion is a condition of cell dysfunction despite antigen engagement, characterized by augmented surface expression of immune checkpoint molecules such as programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), which suppress T cell receptor (TCR) signaling and negatively impact the proliferative and effector activities of T cells. T cell function is tightly modulated by cellular glucose metabolism, which produces adequate energy to support a robust reaction when battling pathogen infection. The transition of the T cells from an active to an exhausted state following pathogen persistence involves a drastic change in metabolic activity. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a human pathogen that attacks the immune system by targeting CD4+ T lymphocytes. HIV infection can result in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a fatal stage at which the host immune system collapses and becomes vulnerable to many types of opportunistic infections.
  • 576
  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Potential of NK Cell-Based Immunotherapies against Multiple Myeloma
Natural killer (NK) cell-based therapies have emerged as promising anticancer treatments due to their potency as cytolytic effectors and synergy with concurrent treatments. Multiple myeloma (MM) is an aggressive B-cell malignancy that, despite development of novel therapeutic agents, remains incurable with a high rate of relapse. In MM, the inhospitable tumor microenvironment prevents host NK cells from exerting their cytolytic function. The development of NK cell immunotherapy works to overcome this altered immune landscape and can be classified in two major groups based on the origin of the cell: autologous or allogeneic. 
  • 573
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and refractory subtype of breast cancer, often occurring in younger patients with poor clinical prognosis. Given the current lack of specific targets for effective intervention, the development of better treatment strategies remains an unmet medical need. Over the last decade, the field of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has grown tremendously, offering immense potential for clinical diagnosis/prognosis and therapeutic applications. While TNBC-EVs have been shown to play an important role in tumorigenesis, chemoresistance and metastasis, they could be repurposed as potential biomarkers for TNBC diagnosis and prognosis. 
  • 572
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Macrophage/Microglia Polarization in Treating Glioblastoma/Multiple Sclerosis
Macrophages and microglia are implicated in several diseases with divergent roles in physiopathology. This discrepancy can be explained by their capacity to endorse different polarization states. Theoretical extremes of these states are called M1 and M2. M1 are pro-inflammatory, microbicidal, and cytotoxic whereas M2 are anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory cells in favor of tumor progression. In pathological states, these polarizations are dysregulated, thus restoring phenotypes could be an interesting treatment approach against diseases.
  • 572
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Regulation of PD-L1 Expression by Nuclear Receptors
The suppression of excessive immune responses is necessary to prevent injury to the body, but it also allows cancer cells to escape immune responses and proliferate. Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) is a co-inhibitory molecule that is present on T cells and is the receptor for programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1). The binding of PD-1 to PD-L1 leads to the inhibition of the T cell receptor signaling cascade. PD-L1 has been found to be expressed in many types of cancers, such as lung, ovarian, and breast cancer, as well as glioblastoma. Furthermore, PD-L1 mRNA is widely expressed in normal peripheral tissues including the heart, skeletal muscle, placenta, lungs, thymus, spleen, kidney, and liver. The expression of PD-L1 is upregulated by proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors via a number of transcription factors. In addition, various nuclear receptors, such as androgen receptor, estrogen receptor, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ, and retinoic-acid-related orphan receptor γ, also regulate the expression of PD-L1. 
  • 571
  • 20 Jun 2023
Topic Review
The Roles of MicroRNAs in Asthma
Asthma is one of the most common chronic non-communicable diseases worldwide, characterized by variable airflow limitation secondary to airway narrowing, airway wall thickening, and increased mucus resulting from chronic inflammation and airway remodeling. Current epidemiological studies reported that hypovitaminosis D is frequent in patients with asthma and is associated with worsening the disease and that supplementation with vitamin D3 improves asthma symptoms. However, despite several advances in the field, the molecular mechanisms of asthma have yet to be comprehensively understood. MicroRNAs play an important role in controlling several biological processes and their deregulation is implicated in diverse diseases, including asthma.
  • 571
  • 31 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Immune Checkpoints as Marker for Cancer Diagnosis
Immune checkpoint-based treatment increases the hope among the cancer patients and especially those who did not respond to more established treatments. Currently, the surface markers, programmed death-1 (PD-1) and CTLA-4 are well known for their function in the immune system, as well as their role in cancer as theranostic applications. PD-1 and CTLA-4 are two major checkpoints approved by the FDA for immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Similarly, other checkpoints, including TIM-3, BTLA, and LAG-3, are under active investigation as potential biomarkers for cancer theranostics. These immune checkpoints can be detected on tumor cells and in the tumor microenvironment (TME) through traditional tissue biopsies and IHC as well as via biosensors. Although these biomarkers are potentially for the detection of cancer, the developmental status of biosensors designed to detect these immune checkpoint markers is still at an early stage.
  • 570
  • 13 Jan 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 S Conserved Regions for Vaccine Development
Several distinct pathogenic coronaviruses have emerged, including the pandemic SARS-CoV-2, which is difficult to curtail despite the availability of licensed vaccines. The difficulty in managing SARS-CoV-2 is linked to changes in the variants’ proteins, especially in the spike protein (SP) used for viral entry. These mutations, especially in the SP, enable the virus to evade immune responses induced by natural infection or vaccination. However, some parts of the SP in the S1 subunit and the S2 subunit are considered conserved among coronaviruses. 
  • 566
  • 29 Jan 2024
Topic Review
MYC Deregulation in Burkitt Lymphoma
MYC deregulation, a cardinal event in Burkitt lymphoma (BL) pathogenesis, necessitates the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms governing MYC activation to devise innovative and effective therapeutic strategies.
  • 565
  • 20 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenesis and Diagnosis of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic, chronic, autoimmune disease categorized by synovial inflammation due to the infiltration of T cells, B cells, neutrophils, and macrophages, destroying articular joints and bone architecture. RA is primarily associated with inflammation within synovial joints. All peripheral joints can be affected in RA, but the most affected are those of the hands, feet, and knees. Although RA’s etiology is still unknown, several factors contributing to RA have been identified. Among them are the susceptibility genes, disease-causing immune cells, and cytokine and signal transduction networks that promote inflammation.
  • 561
  • 07 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns in Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a chronic skin disorder that involves both innate and adaptive immune responses in its pathogenesis. Local tissue damage is a hallmark feature of psoriasis and other autoimmune diseases. In psoriasis, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released by damaged local tissue act as danger signals and trigger inflammatory responses by recruiting and activating immune cells. They also stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which exacerbate the inflammatory response and contribute to disease progression. DAMPs have a dual function. On the one hand, they can regulate cell homeostasis and maintain cell function when present within cells. On the other hand, they can also act as endogenous molecules of cell death or injury and amplify the signal of inflammation through various cell receptors upon release. This leads to the activation of immune cells and the secretion of a large number of inflammatory factors. DAMPs not only play a pro-inflammatory role in acute inflammation, such as sepsis, acute liver injury, or acute pancreatitis, but they also mediate immunity in chronic immune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease.
  • 561
  • 23 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Host Immune Responses to Trypanosomes
The mammalian host’s innate and adaptive immune systems are both key to successfully resisting or controlling trypanosomosis. When trypanosomes are inoculated into the mammalian hosts by a blood-feeding insect such as a tsetse fly, the first contact between the trypanosome and host occurs in the skin. Here, a chancre often develops at the dermal inoculation site. Intense innate immune reactions, cellular reactions, and edema formation accompany these chancres. Thereafter, parasites start to circulate through the blood or lymph, invading lymphatic tissues and various organs. There, the trypanosomes again encounter various innate immune components before being confronted with the adaptive immune system. Once entered into the circulation stage of infection, trypanosomes are going to encounter responses from macrophages and B cells, as well as the T helper compartment that links these two.
  • 559
  • 07 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Targeted Accumulation of Macrophages Induced by Microbeam Irradiation
Macrophages are some of the first cells recruited to sites of radiation-induced injury where they can aid in tissue repair, propagate radiation-induced fibrogenesis and influence tumour dynamics. Radiation therapy (RT) is a vital component of multimodal cancer treatment, and its immunomodulatory effects are a major focus of current therapeutic strategies. Microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) is a unique, spatially fractionated radiation modality that has demonstrated exceptional tumour control and reduction in normal tissue toxicity, including fibrosis. 
  • 558
  • 02 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Staphylococcus aureus-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Atopic Dermatitis Pathophysiology
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory cutaneous disease. The role of host defense and microbial virulence factors in Staphylococcus aureus skin colonization, infection, and inflammation perpetuation in AD remains an area of current research focus. Extracellular vesicles (EV) mediate cell-to-cell communication by transporting and delivering bioactive molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and enzymes, to recipient cells. Staphylococcus aureus spontaneously secretes extracellular vesicles (SA-derived EVs), which spread throughout the skin layers. Research has shown that SA-derived EVs from AD patients can trigger cytokine secretion in keratinocytes, shape the recruitment of neutrophils and monocytes, and induce inflammatory AD-type lesions in mouse models, in addition to their role as exogenous worsening factors for the disease. 
  • 558
  • 22 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Innate Immune System in the Cancer
Ionizing radiation therapy is an important component of cancer treatment. Researchers provide a summary of the latest advancements, clinical use, and limitations of radiation therapy. Moreover, researchers explored how radiation affects the body’s natural defense system, which plays a crucial role in fighting cancer. The immune responses triggered by radiation therapy help the body eliminate tumors naturally.
  • 554
  • 16 Aug 2023
Topic Review
CAR NK Cell Therapy for Metastatic Melanoma
Melanoma is among the most lethal forms of cancer, accounting for 80% of deaths despite comprising just 5% of skin cancer cases. Treatment options remain limited due to the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms associated with melanoma heterogeneity that underlie the rapid development of secondary drug resistance. For this reason, the development of novel treatments remains paramount to the improvement of patient outcomes. Although the advent of chimeric antigen receptor-expressing T (CAR-T) cell immunotherapies has led to many clinical successes for hematological malignancies, these treatments are limited in their utility by their immune-induced side effects and a high risk of systemic toxicities. CAR natural killer (CAR-NK) cell immunotherapies are a particularly promising alternative to CAR-T cell immunotherapies, as they offer a more favorable safety profile and have the capacity for fine-tuned cytotoxic activity. 
  • 551
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
cGLRs as a Novel Family of PRRs
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play critical roles in embryonic development, immune homeostasis, neurodevelopment, and neurodegeneration. PRRs are highly conserved germline-encoded proteins that recognize microbe/pathogen-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs or PAMPs) and death/damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs); thus, they regulate innate and adaptive immunity and contribute to the pathogenesis of many diseases ranging from infections to cancers.
  • 550
  • 09 Feb 2024
Topic Review
lncRNAs in NF-κB-Mediated Macrophage Inflammation
Molecular biology’s focus has transitioned from proteins to DNA, and now to RNA. Once considered merely a genetic information carrier, RNA is now recognized as both a vital element in early cellular life and a regulator in complex organisms. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which are over 200 bases long but do not code for proteins, play roles in gene expression regulation and signal transduction by inducing epigenetic changes or interacting with various proteins and RNAs. These interactions exhibit a range of functions in various cell types, including macrophages. Notably, some macrophage lncRNAs influence the activation of NF-κB, a crucial transcription factor governing immune and inflammatory responses. Macrophage NF-κB is instrumental in the progression of various pathological conditions including sepsis, atherosclerosis, cancer, autoimmune disorders, and hypersensitivity.
  • 544
  • 12 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Immune Checkpoint Proteins, Metabolism and CAR T-Cell Migration
Adoptive transfer of T cells genetically engineered to express chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) has demonstrated striking efficacy for the treatment of several B-cell malignancies. CAR are synthetic receptors that consist of an MHC-independent antigen binding domain usually derived from a tumor-specific monoclonal antibody fused to an intracellular signaling region, composed of the CD3ζ chain and costimulatory molecules from CD28 and 4-1BB. As of September 2021, five CAR T products have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, targeting leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma.
  • 542
  • 22 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Complement Dysregulation in Glaucoma Patients
Glaucoma is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by damage to the optic nerve that results in irreversible vision loss. While the exact pathology of glaucoma is not well understood, emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of the complement system, a key component of innate immunity, plays a crucial role. In glaucoma, dysregulation of the complement cascade and impaired regulation of complement factors contribute to chronic inflammation and neurodegeneration.
  • 542
  • 04 Mar 2024
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