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Topic Review
Spix's Macaw
Spix's macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), also known as the little blue macaw, is a macaw native to Brazil. It is a member of tribe Arini in the subfamily Arinae (Neotropical parrots), part of the family Psittacidae (the true parrots). It was first described by German naturalist Georg Marcgrave, when he was working in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil in 1638 and it is named for German naturalist Johann Baptist von Spix, who collected a specimen in 1819 on the bank of the Rio São Francisco in northeast Bahia in Brazil. The bird is a medium-size parrot weighing about 300 grams (11 oz), smaller than most of the large macaws. Its plumage is various shades of blue, with a grey-blue head, light blue underparts, and vivid blue upperparts. Males and females are almost identical in appearance, however the females are slightly smaller on average. Currently there are no known survivors of the species outside of captivity. The species inhabited riparian Caraibeira (Tabebuia aurea) woodland galleries in the drainage basin of the Rio São Francisco within the Caatinga dry forest climate of interior northeastern Brazil. It had a very restricted natural habitat due to its dependence on the tree for nesting, feeding and roosting. It feeds primarily on seeds and nuts of Caraiba and various Euphorbiaceae (spurge) shrubs, the dominant vegetation of the Caatinga. Due to deforestation in its limited range and specialized habitat, the bird has been rare in the wild throughout the twentieth century. It has always been very rare in captivity, partly due to the remoteness of its natural range. The IUCN regard the Spix's macaw as extinct in the wild. Its last known stronghold in the wild was in northeastern Bahia, Brazil and sightings are very rare. After a 2000 sighting of a male bird, the next and last sighting was in 2016. The species is now maintained through a captive breeding program at several conservation organizations under the aegis of the Brazilian government. It is listed on CITES Appendix I, which makes trade illegal except for legitimate conservation, scientific or educational purposes. The Brazilian Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) is conducting a project Ararinha-Azul with an associated plan to restore the species to the wild as soon as sufficient breeding birds and restored habitat are available.
  • 2.8K
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Eugene Garfield’s Ideas and Legacy
Eugene Garfield introduced information systems that made the discovery of scientific information much more efficient. The founded by him Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) developed innovative information products and provided current scientific information to researchers all over the world. Garfield introduced the citation as a qualitative measure of academic impact and propelled the concepts of “citation indexing” and “citation linking”, paving the way for today’s search engines. He created the Science Citation Index (SCI), which provided a new way of retrieving, organizing, disseminating, and using scientific information; triggered the development of new disciplines (scientometrics, infometrics, webometrics); and became the foundation for building important new information products. The Journal Impact Factor, initially established to select journals for the SCI, became the most widely accepted tool for measuring academic impact. Garfield actively promoted English as the international language of science and became a powerful force in the globalization of research. His ideas revolutionized science and dramatically influenced the culture of research. This Encyclopedia entry is based on the following article:  Baykoucheva, S. Eugene Garfield’s Ideas and Legacy and Their Impact on the Culture of Research. Publications 2019, 7, 43.    
  • 2.8K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Historic Gardens Heritage
Historic Garden is a category of historic heritage enshrined in the Florence Charter as a Living Monument (ICOMOS, 1982). They belong to the category of landscape designed and created intentionally by Man (UNESCO, 2021). As the expression of the relationship between Man and nature (ICOMOS, 1982; Kimber, 2004), gardens are part of the cultural landscape of any civilization and society and reflect the culture, identity and history of a people (Añón, 1993; Kimber, 2004). As such, constitutes cultural, artistic and historical documents (Doolitle, 2004) and horticultural compositions (ICOMOS, 1982) of great importance and interest. Since it is composed of living plant material, a garden is a dynamic and constantly changing environment where different types of time (ecological, social and subjective) are brought together and interact (Bhatti et al., 2009). A garden therefore becomes an unfinished work (Estadão, 2005) and one that is necessarily ephemeral (Gollwitzer, 1993). This dynamic transformation leads Sales (1993) to say that a garden is not an object, but rather a process undergoing constant development and decomposition.
  • 2.8K
  • 26 May 2022
Topic Review
Planctomycetes
The Planctomycetes are a phylum of widely distributed bacteria, occurring in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. They play a considerable role in global carbon and nitrogen cycles, with many species of this phylum capable of anaerobic ammonium oxidation, also known as anammox. Many planctomycetes occur in relatively high abundance as biofilms, often associating with other organisms such as macroalgae and marine sponges. Planctomycetes are included in the PVC superphylum along with Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae, Lentisphaerae, Kiritimatiellaeota, and Candidatus Omnitrophica. The phylum Planctomycete is composed of the classes Planctomycetia and Phycisphaerae. First described in 1924, members of the Planctomycetes were identified as eukaryotes and were only later described as bacteria in 1972. Early examination of members of the Planctomycetes suggested a cell plan differing considerably from other bacteria, although they are now confirmed as Gram-negative bacteria, but with many unique characteristics. Bacteria in the Planctomycetes are often small, spherical cells, but a large amount of morphological variation is seen. Members of the Planctomycetes also display distinct reproductive habits, with many species dividing by budding, in contrast to all other free-living bacteria, which divide by binary fission. Interest is growing in the Planctomycetes regarding biotechnology and human applications, mainly as a source of bioactive molecules. In addition, some Planctomycetes were recently described as human pathogens. The species Gemmata obscuriglobus has been identified specifically as comprising bacteria with unique characteristics among the Planctomycetes, such as their ability to synthesize sterols.
  • 2.8K
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Soil as a Source of Fungi Pathogenic for Public Health
Soil is an environment for huge diversity of fungi, which fulfill various tasks and support the maintaining of soil health. At the same time, varieties of soil fungal species, which produce numerous airborne spores and a range of mycotoxins, are known to be pathogenic for human health. The present review aims to summarize the current knowledge on soil fungi causing public health problems, including dermatoses, allergies, pulmonary diseases, wound infections, infections of the central nervous system, etc.
  • 2.8K
  • 26 Jul 2024
Topic Review
External Beam Radiotherapy
External beam radiotherapy (EBRT) is the most common form of radiotherapy (radiation therapy). The patient sits or lies on a couch and an external source of ionizing radiation is pointed at a particular part of the body. In contrast to brachytherapy (sealed source radiotherapy) and unsealed source radiotherapy, in which the radiation source is inside the body, external beam radiotherapy directs the radiation at the tumour from outside the body. Orthovoltage ("superficial") X-rays are used for treating skin cancer and superficial structures. Megavoltage X-rays are used to treat deep-seated tumours (e.g. bladder, bowel, prostate, lung, or brain), whereas megavoltage electron beams are typically used to treat superficial lesions extending to a depth of approximately 5 cm (increasing beam energy corresponds to greater penetration). X-rays and electron beams are by far the most widely used sources for external beam radiotherapy. A small number of centers operate experimental and pilot programs employing beams of heavier particles, particularly protons, owing to the rapid dropoff in absorbed dose beneath the depth of the target.
  • 2.8K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
WRKY Transcription Factors
The WRKY gene family is a plant-specific transcription factor (TF) group, playing important roles in many different response pathways of diverse abiotic stresses (drought, saline, alkali, temperature, and ultraviolet radiation, and so forth). In recent years, many studies have explored the role and mechanism of WRKY family members from model plants to agricultural crops and other species. Abiotic stress adversely affects the growth and development of plants.
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Primary Health Care Approach in Liberia
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health policy as decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a society. Primary health care (PHC), a holistic approach to health, was proposed at Alma-Ata  and has been the guiding principle for the health system rebuilding of Liberia, a post-conflict, low-income country.
  • 2.8K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Deep Packet Inspection
Deep packet inspection (DPI) is a type of data processing that inspects in detail the data being sent over a computer network, and may take actions such as alerting, blocking, re-routing, or logging it accordingly. Deep packet inspection is often used to baseline application behavior, analyze network usage, troubleshoot network performance, ensure that data is in the correct format, check for malicious code, eavesdropping, and internet censorship, among other purposes. There are multiple headers for IP packets; network equipment only needs to use the first of these (the IP header) for normal operation, but use of the second header (such as TCP or UDP) is normally considered to be shallow packet inspection (usually called stateful packet inspection) despite this definition. There are multiple ways to acquire packets for deep packet inspection. Using port mirroring (sometimes called Span Port) is a very common way, as well physically inserting a network tap which duplicates and sends the data stream to an analyzer tool for inspection. Deep Packet Inspection (and filtering) enables advanced network management, user service, and security functions as well as internet data mining, eavesdropping, and internet censorship. Although DPI has been used for Internet management for many years, some advocates of net neutrality fear that the technique may be used anticompetitively or to reduce the openness of the Internet. DPI is used in a wide range of applications, at the so-called "enterprise" level (corporations and larger institutions), in telecommunications service providers, and in governments.
  • 2.8K
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Theosophy and Politics
Modern Theosophy and politics, according to the statements of Helena Blavatsky and Henry Olcott, are not connected between themselves in any way.(Blavatsky, 1879) However, investigations of historians and religious studies scholars show that the Theosophical movement has played a significant role in consolidation of Indian nationalism. Similar to neo-Hinduism, Theosophy had supporting promotion the nationalist ideology, and this gave Prof. Mark Bevir a reason to consider it not only as a form of "political movement", but also as an "integral part" of neo-Hinduism.
  • 2.8K
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Naringin
Polyphenols comprise a number of natural substances, such as flavonoids, that show interesting biological effects. Among these substances is naringin, a naturally occurring flavanone glycoside found in citrus fruits and Chinese medicinal herbs. Several studies have shown that naringin has numerous biological properties, including cardioprotective, cholesterol-lowering, anti-Alzheimer’s, nephroprotective, antiageing, antihyperglycemic, antiosteoporotic and gastroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, anticancer and antiulcer effects. Despite its multiple benefits, the clinical application of naringin is severely restricted due to its susceptibility to oxidation, poor water solubility, and dissolution rate.
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Solid Electrolytes in Solid-State Battery Technology
The evolution of energy storage technologies has been pivotal in advancing contemporary technological capabilities, significantly contributing to the development of sustainable energy systems. Historically, energy storage has undergone various phases of innovation, each enhancing the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact. A notable transition is occurring towards solid-state energy storage, exemplified by the development and implementation of solid-state batteries (SSBs). This shift is driven by two main factors: the recognition of the limitations in traditional energy storage systems, particularly those using liquid electrolytes, like in lithium-ion batteries (LE-LIBs), and substantial progress in materials science, introducing novel materials and fabrication techniques vital for solid-state energy storage systems
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Microorganisms
Microorganisms are a diverse group of microscopic organisms including archaea, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. Microbial diversity produces a massive pool of unique chemicals, which have become a valuable source for innovative biotechnology. About 23,000 secondary metabolites from microorganisms are known, out of which actinomycetes exclusively produce approximately 42%, whereas fungi form almost similar amounts (42%), and the remaining 16% is produced by eubacteria.
  • 2.8K
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Antioxidant Therapy in Oxidative Stress-Induced Neurodegenerative Diseases
Free radicals are formed as a part of normal metabolic activities but are neutralized by the endogenous antioxidants present in cells/tissue, thus maintaining the redox balance. This redox balance is disrupted in certain neuropathophysiological conditions, causing oxidative stress, which is implicated in several progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Following neuronal injury, secondary injury progression is also caused by excessive production of free radicals. Highly reactive free radicals, mainly the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), damage the cell membrane, proteins, and DNA, which triggers a self-propagating inflammatory cascade of degenerative events. Dysfunctional mitochondria under oxidative stress conditions are considered a key mediator in progressive neurodegeneration. Exogenous delivery of antioxidants holds promise to alleviate oxidative stress to regain the redox balance.
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Chemical Waste
Chemical waste is waste , that is made from chemicals that are mostly produced by large factories. Chemical waste can damage , the environment and cause health problems and as such may fall under regulations such as COSHH in the United Kingdom or the Clean Water Act and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act in the United States . In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), as well as state and local regulations also regulate chemical use and disposal. The disposal and handling of radioactive waste is a particular focus for regulatory bodies due to the environmental and health risks of radiation and the challenges of safe disposal. Chemical waste may or may not be classed as hazardous waste. A chemical hazardous waste is a solid, liquid, or gaseous material that displays either a "Hazardous Characteristic" or is specifically "listed" by name as hazardous waste. There are four characteristics chemical wastes may have to be considered hazardous. These are ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. This type of hazardous waste must be categorized as to its identity, constituents, and hazards so that it may be safely handled and managed. Chemical waste is a broad term and encompasses many types of materials. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), Product data sheet or Label can provide a list of constituents. These sources should state whether this chemical waste is a waste that needs special disposal.
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Dera
A dera is a type of socio-religious organization in northern India . Jacob Copeman defines the deras as "monasteries or the extended residential sites of religious leaders; frequently just glossed as sect". Several deras started out as non-orthodox Sikh sects, and many of them are now centres of distinct non-Sikh religious movements. Many Deras have attracted a large number of outcast Dalits, who earlier embraced Sikhism to escape the Hindu casteism, but felt socially excluded by the Jat Sikh-dominated clerical establishment.
  • 2.8K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
BBM
BBM, also known by its full name BlackBerry Messenger, was a proprietary mobile instant messenger and videotelephony application included on BlackBerry devices that allows messaging and voice calls between BlackBerry OS, BlackBerry 10, iOS, Android, and Windows Mobile users. The consumer edition for iOS and Android, BBM Consumer, was developed by Indonesian company Emtek under licence from BlackBerry Limited (formerly known as Research In Motion). The consumer edition for BlackBerry OS and BlackBerry 10, as well as the paid enterprise edition, called BBM Enterprise (BBMe, formerly known as BBM Protected), were developed fully by BlackBerry Limited and continue to function. BBM Consumer for Android and iOS was shut down on 31 May 2019, however the paid enterprise version of the software, BBMe, is still supported on these platforms. Messages sent via BBM were sent over the Internet and used the BlackBerry PIN system. In the past, many service providers allowed sign-in to BBM using a dedicated BlackBerry data plan. Exchanging messages was possible to a single person or via dedicated discussion or chat groups, which allowed multiple BlackBerry devices to communicate in a single session. In addition to offering text-based instant messages, BBM also allowed users to send pictures, voicenotes (audio recordings), files (up to 16 MB), share real time location on a map, stickers and a wide selection of emojis. Communication was possible only among BlackBerry devices, until late 2013 when BBM was released on iOS and Android systems. Over 300 million Stickers were shared. Daily, approximately 150,000 BBM Voice Calls were placed. There were more than 190 million BBM users worldwide as of 2015, and BlackBerry infrastructure handled 30 petabytes of data traffic each month by early 2013. BBM was the original "mobile-first" messaging service, and was popular for a while before it started to lose out to rivals. As of April 2016, Indonesia was the only country where BBM was the most popular messaging app – installed on 87.5% of Android devices in the country.
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Mentha piperita
Mentha species are famous as therapeutic herbs and have long served as natural herbal formulations. Mentha piperita L. (peppermint) is regarded as one of the best potential sources of biologically active substances for the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. M. piperita, a hybrid mint, is a cross-species between watermint (Mentha aquatica L.) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.). Other Mentha species are also cultivated around the world for essential oil production.
  • 2.8K
  • 27 Nov 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Smart Factories for Mass Individualization
With the rise of individualism as a social trend and the wide use of the Internet and social media, today’s customers increasingly want to design and build unique products that fit their individual preferences and needs. Mass individualization is defined as a manufacturing paradigm that aims to produce individualized products cost-effectively. This paradigm differs from the previous paradigms in which the manufacturing company designed and manufactured the products, and the customer chose a product. In the mass individualization paradigm, the customers will be actively involved in product design, and the manufacturer will produce a unique product for each customer at a reasonable cost and of reliable quality. Due to the need for smooth communication and interactions between the buyer and the factory, new factories for individualized products will be located near potential buyers, which will have a significant impact on local economies. This entry explores the relationship between mass individualization and other emerging manufacturing paradigms and concepts in the Industry 4.0/5.0 era, and discusses how smart factories can improve manufacturing efficiency and facilitate the realization of the mass individualization paradigm.
  • 2.8K
  • 27 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Heavy metals removal from contaminated solution using seaweed
Heavy metal contamination affects lives with concomitant environmental pollution, and seaweed has emerged as a remedy with the ability to save the ecosystem, due to its eco-friendliness, affordability, availability, and effective metal ion removal rate. Heavy metals are intrinsic toxicants that are known to induce damage to multiple organs, especially when subjected to excess exposure. With respect to these growing concerns, this review presents the preferred sorption material among the many natural sorption materials. The use of seaweeds to treat contaminated solutions has demonstrated outstanding results when compared to other materials. The sorption of metal ions using dead seaweed biomass offers a comparative advantage over other natural sorption materials. This article summarizes the impact of heavy metals on the environment, and why dead seaweed biomass is regarded as the leading remediation material among the available materials. 
  • 2.8K
  • 24 Nov 2021
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