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Topic Review
Retinopathy of Prematurity
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is an ocular vascular disease affecting premature infants, characterized by pathological retinal neovascularization (RNV), dilated and tortuous retinal blood vessels, and retinal or vitreous hemorrhages that may lead to retinal detachment, vision impairment and blindness.
  • 1.6K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Federated Learning Applications  in Ocular Imaging
Advances in artificial intelligence deep learning (DL) have made tremendous impacts on the field of ocular imaging. Specifically, DL has been utilised to detect and classify various ocular diseases on retinal photographs, optical coherence tomography (OCT) images, and OCT-angiography images. In order to achieve good robustness and generalisability of model performance, DL training strategies traditionally require extensive and diverse training datasets from various sites to be transferred and pooled into a “centralised location”. However, such a data transferring process could raise practical concerns related to data security and patient privacy. Federated learning (FL) is a distributed collaborative learning paradigm which enables the coordination of multiple collaborators without the need for sharing confidential data. This distributed training approach has great potential to ensure data privacy among different institutions and reduce the potential risk of data leakage from data pooling or centralisation.
  • 1.6K
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Visual Training in Amblyopia
Active vision therapy using perceptual learning and/or dichoptic or binocular environments has shown its potential effectiveness in amblyopia, but some doubts remain about the type of stimuli and the mode and sequence of presentation that should be used. 
  • 1.6K
  • 04 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Ly6c as New Marker of Mouse Blood Vessels
During our research we have observed that Ly6c, which is traditionally only used as a classic and non-classical monocyte / macrophage differentiating antigen, can be used as a new specific marker of the mouse vasculature and to assess qualitatively and quantitatively vascular changes in health and disease. Researchers believe that this innovative application of Ly6c immunodetection, which has shown three advantages (brighter signal, homogeneous staining and greater selectivity) compared to traditional vessel markers such as IB4 isolectin, will be of high interest to researchers in this field.
  • 1.6K
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Thyroid Eye Disease
Thyroid eye disease (TED) is an inflammatory disease of orbital tissue characterized by infiltration of lymphocytic cells, orbital fat expansion, and extraocular muscle swelling. The gravity of thyroid eye disease lies in its sight-threatening, debilitating, and disfiguring potential. Despite extensive ongoing research about TED, the disorder remains elusive in its exact pathophysiology, prevention, and ideal treatment.
  • 1.6K
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Ocular Cystinosis
Cystinosis is a rare autosomal recessive disease that affects about 1 in 100,000–200,000 people among the general population, characterized by high levels of cystine within the lysosomes in cells of certain types of tissues. The accumulation of this substance is caused by mutations in the CTNS gene which codes for cystinosin, the carrier that transports cystine out of the lysosome. The presence of cystine crystals in different tissues leads to the progressive impairment and dysfunction of multiple organs, such as kidneys, pancreas, brain, thyroid and eyes.
  • 1.6K
  • 16 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Findings
The main OCT biomarkers related to progression to advanced AMD include drusen volume, hyperreflective foci (HRF), reticular pseudodrusen or subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD), incomplete retinal pigment epithelial and outer retinal atrophy (iRORA), hyper-transmission defects, and OCT-reflective drusen substructures (ODS).
  • 1.6K
  • 07 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Drug Delivery to Posterior Segment of Eye
The posterior segment of the eye comprises the back two-thirds of the eye, including the vitreous humor, the retina, the choroid and the optic nerve. Posterior Segment Eye Diseases (PSEDs) are then defined as the disorders that affect these tissues with the common main outcome of varying degrees of visual impartment and blindness. The most prevalent diseases are glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy (DR). This specialized organ is composed of various static and dynamic barriers that restrict drug delivery into the target site of action. Despite numerous efforts, effective intraocular drug delivery remains unresolved and, therefore, it is highly desirable to improve the current treatments of diseases affecting the posterior cavity. 
  • 1.6K
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Antioxidant Defenses in the Eye
This review describes the main antioxidant systems of the human eye, with particular emphasis in those expressed in the natural barriers of antioxidant protection, i.e., the ocular surface, the lens, the retina and its retinal pigment epithelium. In addition to superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, peroxiredoxins and selenoproteins, inter alia, metallothioneins (MTs) are considered antioxidant proteins of growing interest with further cell-mediated functions. The state of the art of MTs, including the isoforms classification, the main functions described to date and the zinc-MT redox cycle as antioxidant defense system are comprehensively described.
  • 1.5K
  • 12 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Anterior-Segment Optical-Coherence Tomography
Anterior-segment optical-coherence tomography (AS-OCT) is used to assess the iridocorneal angle and its alterations. The introduction of AS-OCT has led to improved assessments of the anatomy of the iridocorneal-angle and diagnoses of several mechanisms of angle closure which often result in raised intraocular pressure (IOP). Continuous advancements in AS-OCT technology and software, along with an extensive research in the field, have resulted in a wide range of possible parameters that may be used to diagnose and follow up on patients with this spectrum of diseases. However, the clinical relevance of such variables needs to be explored thoroughly.
  • 1.5K
  • 14 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus
Normal-pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) is a neurological disease characterized by enlarged cerebral ventricles and clinical features of gait disturbance, urinary incontinence, and cognitive decline.
  • 1.5K
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Therapeutics for Corneal Scar Treatment
The process of corneal wound healing is complex and induces scar formation. Corneal scarring is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. The fibrotic healing of a major ocular wound disrupts the highly organized fibrillar collagen arrangement of the corneal stroma, rendering it opaque. The process of regaining this organized extracellular matrix (ECM) arrangement of the stromal layer to restore corneal transparency is complicated. The surface retention capacity of ocular drugs is poor, and there is a large gap between suitable corneal donors and clinical requirements. 
  • 1.5K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Histamine in Glaucoma
Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy characterized by high intra-ocular pressure (IOP) and  progressive degeneration of retinal ganglionic cells (RGCs). Increased IOP and short-term IOP fluctuation are two of the most critical risk factors in glaucoma progression which can lead to visual field impairment and loss of visual function as a consequence of the damage of optic nerve. Histamine is produced within mast cell and neurons in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and it is a well-characterized neuromodulator.  The secretion of histamine  follows a circadian rhythm, regulates IOP and modulates retinal circuits and vision.
  • 1.4K
  • 02 Nov 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Improving Compliance with Medical Treatment Using Eye Drop Aids
Achieving optimal treatment outcomes in glaucoma requires patients to adhere to their medication regimens. Possible barriers to patients’ cooperation include the misunderstanding of a treatment’s importance or errors in applying instructions, forgetfulness, financial constraints and others. Due to the fact that glaucoma usually causes no apparent symptoms or pain, on the one hand, and the significant inconvenience that the eye drops used for glaucoma treatment can cause due to local irritation, on the other, patient compliance is a challenge. To address this challenge, we require strategies for improving adherence to glaucoma treatment. The importance of proper eye drop administration techniques cannot be overstated, particularly for vulnerable populations such as the elderly, the sick and the visually handicapped. Studies have shown that failure to comply with glaucoma treatment is a significant factor affecting disease progression, emphasizing the need for interventions that improve patient compliance. Educational interventions, medication reminders and the use of assistive devices such as eye drop aids have been shown to improve adherence to glaucoma treatment. By promoting strategies that can be used to enhance treatment adherence, healthcare providers can ensure that glaucoma patients receive the full benefits of their treatment plans, reducing the risk of disease progression. Many patients struggle with the complexity of their treatment regimens and the challenges of administering eye drops. This entry provides a comprehensive overview of the different barriers to patient adherence to glaucoma eye drop treatment, emphasizing the difficulties associated with eye drop instillation. This entry examines a range of eye drop aids available to patients, evaluating their modes of action, benefits, drawbacks and effectiveness in improving patient compliance. By providing detailed information on the barriers to adherence and the range of eye drop aids available, this entry aims to support healthcare providers in helping glaucoma patients to achieve better treatment adherence and outcomes.
  • 1.4K
  • 19 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Corneal Epithelial Stem Cells
In the human cornea, regeneration of the epithelium is regulated by the stem cell reservoir of the limbus, which is the marginal region of the cornea representing the anatomical and functional border between the corneal and conjunctival epithelium. In support of this concept, extensive limbal damage, e.g., by chemical or thermal injury, inflammation, or surgery, may induce limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) leading to vascularization and opacification of the cornea and eventually vision loss. These acquired forms of limbal stem cell deficiency may occur uni- or bilaterally, which is important for the choice of treatment. Moreover, a variety of inherited diseases, such as congenital aniridia or dyskeratosis congenita, are characterized by LSCD typically occurring bilaterally. Several techniques of autologous and allogenic stem cell transplantation have been established. The limbus can be restored by transplantation of whole limbal grafts, small limbal biopsies or by ex vivo-expanded limbal cells.
  • 1.4K
  • 08 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Sorsby‘s Fundus Dystrophy
Sorsby‘s fundus dystrophy (SFD) is a rare, autosomal dominant inherited retinal disease with complete penetrance affecting both genders similarly, typically becoming symptomatic after the second decade of life, with an average onset in the 4th to 5th decade of life, leading to severe bilateral vision loss and blindness if left untreated.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Sickle Cell Retinopathy
This work provides a complete review on sickle cell retinopathy (SCR), the most representative ophtalmologic complication of sickle cell disease (SCD), a hemoglobinopathy affecting both adults and children. It extensively relates the classification, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, risk factors, diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic options for SCR. It also highlights the need of a multidisciplinary theranostic approach.
  • 1.4K
  • 14 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Lactoferrin in Ocular Diseases
Besides the well-known antibacterial effect of lactoferrin, novel interest has been rising towards its potential application in the field of dry eye and viral infections. A growing body of evidence supports the antimicrobial efficacy of lactoferrin, which is not limited to its iron-chelating properties but also depends on its capability to directly interact with pathogen particles while playing immunomodulatory effects. Nowadays, lactoferrin antiviral activity is of special interest, since lactoferrin-based eye drops could be adopted to treat/prevent the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, which has conjunctivitis among its possible clinical manifestations. In the future, further data from randomized controlled studies are desirable to confirm the efficacy of lactoferrin in the wide range of ocular conditions where it can be used.
  • 1.4K
  • 14 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Negative Dysphotopsia after Cataract Surgery
Dysphotopsias are unwanted visual phenomena that occur after cataract surgery. They represent some of the most common reasons for patient dissatisfaction after uncomplicated surgery for cataract phacoemulsification with in-the-bag intraocular lens (IOL) implantation. Depending on the form of the optical phenomenon and the effect it poses on vision, dysphotopsias are divided into positive and negative type. Positive dysphotopsias are usually described by patients as glare, light streaks, starbursts, light arcs, rings, haloes, or flashes of light. Negative dysphotopsias (ND) are manifested as an arc-shaped shadow or line usually located in the temporal part of the visual field, similar to a temporal scotoma. ND is evoked by an external light source that is typically temporally oriented. Patients most commonly experience this phenomenon in photopic conditions when the pupil is narrow. ND is a diagnosis of exclusion where other possible ocular and neuro-ophthalmological pathologies should be excluded. The etiology of ND is not clearly defined, and the cause seems to be multifactorial. Holladay and Simpson categorized the risk factors for ND development into three groups: anatomic characteristics (pupil size, hyperopia, and angle kappa), IOL properties (IOL surface steepness, edge design, dioptricpower, and refraction index), and surgical technique for cataract removal (optic–haptic junction orientation and position of nasal anterior capsule to the IOL surface).
  • 1.4K
  • 28 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Energy Metabolism and Glaucoma
Glaucoma, the leading cause of irreversible blindness, is a heterogeneous group of diseases characterized by progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons and leads to visual loss and blindness. Risk factors for the onset and progression of glaucoma include systemic and ocular factors such as older age, lower ocular perfusion pressure, and intraocular pressure (IOP). Early signs of RGC damage comprise impairment of axonal transport, downregulation of specific genes and metabolic changes. The brain is often cited to be the highest energy-demanding tissue of the human body. The retina is estimated to have equally high demands. RGCs are particularly active in metabolism and vulnerable to energy insufficiency. Understanding the energy metabolism of the inner retina, especially of the RGCs, is pivotal for understanding glaucoma’s pathophysiology.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Apr 2021
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