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Topic Review
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is comprised of two main branches, with ACE2 representing a crucial component of the protective part of the complex. The ACE2/Ang (1-7) axis is well represented in the testis, heart, brain, kidney, and intestine. Infection with the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus determines downregulation of ACE2 and interrupts the equilibrium between ACE and ACE2 in these organs.
  • 2.0K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Myocardial Infarction with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries
Myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) is a heterogeneous group of conditions that include both atherosclerotic (coronary plaque disruption) and non-atherosclerotic (spontaneous coronary artery dissection, coronary artery spasm, coronary artery embolism, coronary microvascular dysfunction, and supply–demand mismatch) causes resulting in myocardial damage that is not due to obstructive coronary artery disease. Failure to identify the underlying cause may result in inadequate and inappropriate therapy in these patients.
  • 2.0K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Effects of Vasopressin and Oxytocin
Oxytocin (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2; OXY) and arginine vasopressin (Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2; AVP) are nonapeptides, differing only in two aminoacids.  The secretion of OXY and AVP is influenced by changes in body fluid osmolality, blood volume, blood pressure, hypoxia, and stress. AVP and OXY receptors are present in several regions of the brain (cortex, hypothalamus, pons, medulla, and cerebellum) and in the peripheral organs (heart, lungs, carotid bodies, kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, thymus). Hypertension, myocardial infarction, and coexisting factors, such as pain and stress, have a significant impact on the secretion of oxytocin and vasopressin and on the expression of their receptors.
  • 2.0K
  • 10 Nov 2021
Topic Review
BKCa Channels
Large Conductance Calcium and Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels (BKCa). Also known as Slowpoke, KCa1.1, and MaxiK channels. 
  • 2.0K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157
Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 especial therapy effects combine the therapy of myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmonary hypertension arrhythmias, and thrombosis prevention and reversal. The shared therapy effect occurred as part of its even larger cytoprotection (cardioprotection) therapy effect (direct epithelial cell protection; direct endothelium cell protection) that BPC 157 exerts as a novel cytoprotection mediator, which is native and stable in human gastric juice, as well as easily applicable.
  • 2.0K
  • 07 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Echocardiography in Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases
Echocardiography, including transthoracic two and three-dimensional echocardiography, Doppler imaging, myocardial deformation and transesophageal echo, is an established and widely available imaging technique for the identification of cardiovascular manifestations that are crucial for prognosis in rheumatic diseases. Echocardiography is also important for monitoring the impact of drug treatment on cardiac function, coronary microcirculatory function, valvular function and pulmonary artery pressures. 
  • 2.0K
  • 17 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Tryptophan Metabolism in Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the major causes of mortality worldwide. Inflammation is the underlying common mechanism involved in CVD. It has been recently related to amino acid metabolism, which acts as a critical regulator of innate and adaptive immune responses. Among different metabolites that have emerged as important regulators of immune and inflammatory responses, tryptophan (Trp) metabolites have been shown to play a pivotal role in CVD.
  • 1.9K
  • 13 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction
Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) remains a poorly characterized syndrome with many unknown aspects related to different patient profiles, various associated risk factors and a wide range of aetiologies. It comprises several pathophysiological pathways, such as endothelial dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, extracellular matrix deposition and intense inflammatory system activation.
  • 1.9K
  • 18 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Practical Echocardiographic Approach of Regurgitant Mitral Valve Assessment
Mitral regurgitation is the second-most frequent valvular heart disease in Europe after degenerative aortic stenosis. The mitral valve is a complex anatomical structure whose physiological functioning relies on the biomechanical properties and structural integrity of its components. Their compromise can lead to mitral valve dysfunction. Assessing its morphology can reveal various normal and abnormal features, which can be associated with deteriorating clinical outcomes. Transthoracic echocardiography is the first diagnosis approach that should be performed to assess the valve disfunction, giving a complete morphological description of the structures, the regurgitant mechanism, and etiology.
  • 1.9K
  • 22 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Complications Associated with COVID-19
An infectious coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is accompanied with elevated risk and adverse outcome among infected patients, even sudden death due to significant multiple organ dysfunction, including dire cardiovascular complications. Myocardial impairment due to invasion of SARS-CoV-2 virus via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor to cardiovascular cells/tissue leads to endothelial inflammation and dysfunction, de-stabilization of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques, stent thrombosis and cardiac stress, caused by diminished oxygen supply and cardiac muscle damage and myocardial infarction. A number of promising therapeutic approaches are currently under clinical trials to avoid a massive surge of COVID-19 patients with prevalence of adverse cardiac events.
  • 1.9K
  • 19 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Aortic Dissection
Acute aortic syndromes (AAS) represent a spectrum of interrelated disorders characterized by the disruption of the aortic integrity, and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. These conditions include aortic dissection (AD), accounting for the majority of AAS (80%), intramural hematoma (IMH, ~15%), and penetrating aortic ulcer (PAU, ~5%).
  • 1.8K
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Bayés’ Syndrome
Interatrial block associated with atrial arrhythmias, mainly atrial fibrillation, define the Bayés’ Syndrome (called after Bayés de Luna, a proeminent cardiologist, who published the seminal paper about the problem of P-wave anomalies and interatrial blocks). Finding the signs of interatrial block on ECG represents a call for active screening of atrial fibrillation and starting of prophylactic anticoagulation in selected patients.  
  • 1.8K
  • 09 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Participation of KLF2 and KLF4 in in Atherogenesis
Atherosclerosis is an important problem in modern medicine, the keys to understanding many aspects of which are still not available to clinicians. Atherosclerosis develops as a result of a complex chain of events in which many cells of the vascular wall and peripheral blood flow are involved. Endothelial cells, which line the vascular wall in a monolayer, play an important role in vascular biology. A growing body of evidence strengthens the understanding of the multifaceted functions of endothelial cells, which not only organize the barrier between blood flow and tissues but also act as regulators of hemodynamics and play an important role in regulating the function of other cells in the vascular wall. Krüppel-like factors (KLFs) perform several biological functions in various cells of the vascular wall. The large family of KLFs in humans includes 18 members, among which KLF2 and KLF4 are at the crossroads between endothelial cell mechanobiology and immunometabolism, which play important roles in both the normal vascular wall and atherosclerosis.
  • 1.8K
  • 07 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Honey
Honey is one of the most prized medicinal remedies used since ancient times. There is evidence that indicates honey can function as a cardioprotective agent in cardiovascular diseases.
  • 1.8K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Congenital Heart Disease
The use of next-generation sequencing has provided new insights into the causes and mechanisms of congenital heart disease (CHD). Examinations of the whole exome sequence have detected detrimental gene variations modifying single or contiguous nucleotides, which are characterised as pathogenic based on statistical assessments of families and correlations with congenital heart disease, elevated expression during heart development, and reductions in harmful protein-coding mutations in the general population.
  • 1.8K
  • 19 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Diseases and Stem Cells
This entry provides an update on previous and current research in the field of Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), a class of disorders affecting the heart or blood vessels. Despite progress in clinical research and therapy, CVDs still represent the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. The hallmarks of cardiac diseases include inflammation, fibrosis, scar tissue, hyperplasia, hypertrophy, abnormal ventricular remodeling, and cardiomyocyte death, which is an irreversible process that induces heart failure with progressive and dramatic consequences. Both genetic and environmental factors pathologically contribute to the development of CVDs, but the precise causes that trigger cardiac diseases and their progression are still largely unknown. In this scenario, the possibility to generate patient-specific cardiac cells from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) represents a powerful platform for the investigation of these life-threatening disorders.
  • 1.8K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Endothelium in Cardiovascular Sequelae of Long COVID
The vascular endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels and, at the same time, a dynamic structure that is vital for the regulation of vascular health and homeostasis. More and more patients complained of signs and symptoms developing after SARS-CoV-2 infection and persisting for more than 12 weeks, not explained by an alternative diagnosis. This new nosographic entity has been defined as long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE).
  • 1.8K
  • 22 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Left Ventricular Summit
The left ventricular summit (LVS) is a triangular area located at the most superior portion of the left epicardial ventricular region, surrounded by the two branches of the left coronary artery: the left anterior interventricular artery and the left circumflex artery. The triangle is bounded by the apex, septal and mitral margins and base. 
  • 1.8K
  • 09 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Techniques for Ventricular Tachycardia Functional Substrate Mapping
Conventional mapping techniques used to define the critical isthmus, such as activation mapping and entrainment, are limited by the non-inducibility of the clinical tachycardia or its poor hemodynamic tolerance. To overcome these limitations, a voltage mapping strategy based on bipolar electrograms peak to peak analysis was developed, but a low specificity (30%) for VT isthmus has been described with this approach. Functional mapping strategy relies on the analysis of the characteristics of the electrograms but also their propagation patterns and their response to extra-stimulus or alternative pacing wavefronts to define the targets for ablation.
  • 1.8K
  • 19 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Iron Deficiency in Heart Failure
Iron is an essential micronutrient for a myriad of physiological processes in the body beyond erythropoiesis. Iron deficiency (ID) is a common comorbidity in patients with heart failure (HF), with a prevalence reaching up to 59% even in non-anaemic patients. ID impairs exercise capacity, reduces the quality of life, increases hospitalisation rate and mortality risk regardless of anaemia. Intravenously correcting ID has emerged as a promising treatment in HF as it has been shown to alleviate symptoms, improve quality of life and exercise capacity and reduce hospitalisations. However, the pathophysiology of ID in HF remains poorly characterised. Recognition of ID in HF triggered more research with the aim to explain how correcting ID improves HF status as well as the underlying causes of ID in the first place. In the past few years, significant progress has been made in understanding iron homeostasis by characterising the role of the iron-regulating hormone hepcidin, the effects of ID on skeletal and cardiac myocytes, kidneys and the immune system.
  • 1.8K
  • 11 Apr 2022
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