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Topic Review
 Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder are genetically complex and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) resulting from genetic factors and gene-environment (GxE) interactions for which onset occurs in early brain development.
  • 944
  • 07 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Environmental Enrichment Effects in the Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a very plastic brain region that responds to every experience with deep structural and functional rearrangement.
  • 943
  • 18 May 2022
Topic Review
ALS and NLRP3
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by atrophy and paralysis of voluntary muscles as a result of the progressive loss of upper and lower motor neurons. The best characterized inflammasome is NLRP3, which is composed of the NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing protein 3, the adaptor protein ASC and pro-caspase 1. Although it has been shown that this inflammasome plays an important role in neurodegenerative disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, little is known about its implication in ALS. Since NLRP3 inflammasome plays a pivotal role in several neurodegenerative disorders, we hypothesized that levels of inflammasome components could help in diagnosis or prognosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
  • 942
  • 24 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Arcuate Neurocircuits
Obesity is a chronic state of energy imbalance that represents a major public health problem and greatly increases the risk for developing hypertension, hyperglycemia, and a multitude of related pathologies that encompass the metabolic syndrome. The underlying mechanisms and optimal treatment strategies for obesity, however, are still not fully understood. A growing area of research is to better understand how peripheral hormones interact with a widely distributed network of brain circuits involved in the control of energy balance. In this regard, the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus has emerged as an important brain region due to its ability to sense circulating hormones and to modulate neural pathways controlling food intake and energy expenditure, and blood pressure.
  • 942
  • 22 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Mass Spectrometry for Neurobiomarker Discovery: Post-Translational Modifications Relevance
Neurodegenerative diseases are incurable, heterogeneous, and age-dependent disorders that challenge modern medicine. A deeper understanding of the pathogenesis underlying neurodegenerative diseases is necessary to solve the unmet need for new diagnostic biomarkers and disease-modifying therapy and reduce these diseases’ burden. Specifically, post-translational modifications (PTMs) play a significant role in neurodegeneration. Due to its proximity to the brain parenchyma, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has long been used as an indirect way to measure changes in the brain. Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis in neurodegenerative diseases focusing on PTMs and in the context of biomarker discovery has improved and opened venues for analyzing more complex matrices such as brain tissue and blood. Notably, phosphorylated tau protein, truncated α-synuclein, APP and TDP-43, and many other modifications were extensively characterized by MS. Great potential is underlying specific pathological PTM-signatures for clinical application. This review focuses on PTM-modified proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases and highlights the most important and recent breakthroughs in MS-based biomarker discovery.
  • 940
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Deep Brain Stimulation for Refractory Neurological Disorder Management
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been extensively studied due to its reversibility and significantly fewer side effects. DBS is mainly a symptomatic therapy, but the stimulation of subcortical areas by DBS is believed to affect the cytoarchitecture of the brain, leading to adaptability and neurogenesis. The neurological disorders most commonly studied with DBS were Parkinson’s disease, essential tremor, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and major depressive disorder. 
  • 940
  • 22 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy Clinical Presentation
Non-valvular atrial fibrillation (AF) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) are two common diseases in elderly populations. Despite the effectiveness of oral anticoagulant therapy in cardioembolic stroke prevention, intracranial hemorrhage represents the most serious complication of these therapies. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy is one of the main risk factors for spontaneous intracranial bleeding, and this risk is highly increased by age and concomitant antithrombotic therapies. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy can be silent for years and then manifest with clinical features simulating TIA (TIA-mimics) or stroke in AF patients, pushing clinicians to rapidly start Vitamin K Antagonists (VKAs) or direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), thus increasing the risk of intracranial bleeding if the diagnosis of CAA was unknown. Because the cerebral amyloid angiopathy is easily diagnosed with non-contrast MRI, suspecting the disease can avoid catastrophic complications.
  • 940
  • 26 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Copper and Alzheimer’s Disease
Copper is an essential nutrient for plants, animals, and humans because it is an indispensable component of several essential proteins and either lack or excess are harmful to human health. Recent studies revealed that the breakdown of the regulation of copper homeostasis could be associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia. Copper imbalance occurs in human aging and is thought to increase the risk of AD for individuals with susceptibility to copper exposure. The main feature of Cu imbalance in AD consists in the increase of a Cu species of the metal nonbound to proteins, called non-ceruloplasmin Cu (also known as ‘free Cu’) that is highly reactive. Non-ceruloplasmin Cu is a small molecular weight Cu that is exchanged among albumin and other serum proteins, peptides, and amino acids. It is an established marker of Wilson disease, the paradigmatic disease on Cu toxicosis or accumulation, but it increases also in AD. When exceeding 1.6 micromolar in serum, non-ceruloplasmin Cu is toxic and can cross the blood brain barrier and reach the brain, reacting with other drivers of AD, as for example the beta amyloid (Aβ), the main constituent of the amyloid plaques 
  • 939
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Novel Coumarin-Based Inverse Agonists of GPR55
The G-protein coupled receptor 55 (GPR55) was first described in 1999 and is broadly expressed in different areas of the CNS, such as the frontal cortex or the hippocampus. The discovery of the bioactive lipid lysophosphtatidylinositol (LPI) as endogenous GPR55 agonist led to the receptor’s deorphanization . However, besides LPI, several commercially available as well as endogenous ligands show agonistic or antagonistic activity at the GPR55. Endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) for instance, show strong affinities and activation of GPR55, heating up the discussion about GPR55 as potential third cannabinoid-receptor (CB). Commercially available GPR55 agonists, such as O-1602, and GPR55-antagonists like ML-193 are commonly used in GPR55 research, to evaluate GPR55-specific molecular pathways and effects. Besides these widely used GPR55 ligands, coumarin-derivates show antagonistic coupled to inverse agonistic activities on GPR55-dependent neuroinflammatory processes as reported recently.
  • 939
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Resting State fMRI in ASD
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by a fundamental change in self-awareness including seemingly paradoxical features like increased ego-centeredness and weakened self-referentiality.
  • 938
  • 10 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Corpus Callosotomy for Controlling Epileptic Spasms
Epileptic spasms (ESs) are a type of epileptic seizure characterized as brief muscle contractions with ictal polyphasic slow waves on an electroencephalogram and a main feature of West syndrome. Resection surgeries, including frontal/posterior disconnections and hemispherotomy, have been established for the treatment of medically intractable ES in patients with unilaterally localized epileptogenic regions. Corpus callosotomy (CC) has been mainly used to treat drop attacks, which are classified as generalized tonic or atonic seizures. However, CC has also been adopted for ES treatment. 
  • 937
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Targets Reported for Cannabidiol
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major phytocannabinoid present in Cannabis sativa (Linneo, 1753). This naturally occurring secondary metabolite does not induce intoxication or exhibit the characteristic profile of drugs of abuse from cannabis like Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC) does. CBD is a complex multi-target molecule, meaning that it can exert different pharmacological effects by interacting with highly diverse molecular targets. CBD behaves as an agonist, inverse agonist, or antagonist on different receptors. CBD can also behave as an allosteric negative (NAM) or positive (PAM) modulator. CBD also exerts an effect on several enzymes, both neuro-enzymes and hepatic ones. CBD’s effects have been reported to vary across concentrations and doses in vitro and in vivo models.
  • 937
  • 13 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis with the Enteric Nervous System
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons in the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and medulla oblongata. Most patients present a clinical phenotype of classic ALS—with predominant atrophy, muscle weakness, and fasciculations—and survival of 3 to 5 years following diagnosis. There are two types of ALS: the familial form with genetic involvement, and the sporadic form with a multifactorial origin. ALS pathophysiology is characterized by involvement of multiple processes, including oxidative stress, glutamate excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. Moreover, it is proposed that conditioning risk factors affect ALS development—such as susceptibility to neurodegeneration in motor neurons, the intensity of performed physical activity, and intestinal dysbiosis with involvement of the enteric nervous system—which supports the existing theories of disease generation.
  • 937
  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Vitamin D in Cognitive Dysfunction
Vitamin D is necessary for all vertebrates, including humans, to maintain adequate phosphate and calcium levels in the blood, thereby helping to develop normal bone, optimal maintenance of muscle contractions, and cellular functions in different parts of the body. The developmental disabilities induced by vitamin D deficiency (VDD) include neurological disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia) characterized by cognitive dysfunction. 
  • 935
  • 28 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Craniovertebral Junction Instability after Oncological Resection
The craniovertebral junction (CVJ) is a complex transition area between the skull and cervical spine. Pathologies such as chordoma, chondrosarcoma and aneurysmal bone cysts may be encountered in this anatomical area and may predispose individuals to joint instability.
  • 935
  • 05 May 2023
Topic Review
Plant Extract of Limonium gmelinii
L. gmelinii is widespread in Eastern Europe, South-Western Siberia, China, and Central Asia. It has industrial resources on the whole territory of Kazakhstan, primarily on saline lands, and has been used in traditional herbal medicine in Central Asia for hundreds of years. These plants are characterized by rapid growth and high yield, so their reserves in nature can be kept at their original level if the guidelines of good practices for collection and preparation of medicinal plant raw materials are followed. These plants can also be cultivated.
  • 934
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Maternal Nutrition and Neurodevelopment
Both experimental animal studies on the effects of micronutrients and macronutrients on offspring and human studies of pregnant women from cohorts with different nutritional conditions have contributed to current knowledge in the field of maternal nutrition. Diet and food choices define maternal nutritional status and directly influence fetal neurodevelopment. Maternal malnutrition, including undernutrition and overnutrition, can lead to altered neurodevelopment. 
  • 933
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Frequent Psychiatric and Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome
The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined a post-COVID-19 condition. Some of these symptoms can be categorized as psychiatric and neuropsychiatric  post COVID-19 symptoms if they appeared in the aftermath of COVID-19, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, somatic symptoms disorders such as hyperventilation syndrome, fatigue, cognitive and sleep disorders. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric post-COVID-19 present mental health specialists with difficult challenges because of its complexity and the multiple ways in which it integrates into a singular somatic context. 
  • 933
  • 01 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Human stem cell implantation in Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive debilitating neurodegenerative disease and the most common form of dementia in the older population. At present, there is no definitive effective treatment for AD. Therefore, researchers are now looking at stem cell therapy as a possible treatment for AD, but whether stem cells are safe and effective in humans is still not clear. In this narrative review, we discuss both preclinical studies and clinical trials on the therapeutic potential of human stem cells in AD. Preclinical studies have successfully differentiated stem cells into neurons in vitro, indicating the potential viability of stem cell therapy in neurodegenerative diseases. Preclinical studies have also shown that stem cell therapy is safe and effective in improving cognitive performance in animal models, as demonstrated in the Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test. Although few clinical trials have been completed and many trials are still in phase I and II, the initial results confirm the outcomes of the preclinical studies. However, limitations like rejection, tumorigenicity and ethical issues are still barriers to the advancement of stem cell therapy. In conclusion, the use of stem cells in the treatment of AD shows promise in terms of effectiveness and safety.
  • 931
  • 15 Oct 2021
Topic Review
The Role of IL-22 in Neuroinflammation
Interleukin (IL)-22 is a potent mediator of inflammatory responses. The IL-22 receptor consists of the IL-22Rα and IL-10Rβ subunits. Previous studies have shown that IL-22Rα expression is restricted to non-hematopoietic cells in the skin, pancreas, intestine, liver, lung, and kidney. The results in this entry demonstrate that interaction of IL-22 with IL-22Rα plays a role in the development of inflammatory responses in the brain.
  • 931
  • 28 Mar 2022
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