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Topic Review
Proanthocyanidins Biosynthesis in Horticultural Plants
Proanthocyanidins are essential secondary plant metabolites that contribute to the nutritional value and sensory quality of many fruits and the related processed products. The accumulation of proanthocyanidins is associated with the resistance of plants against a broad spectrum of abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Many specific regulators were involved in the proanthocyanidins biosynthetic network in response to various environmental conditions. 
  • 1.2K
  • 25 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Roles of GRP78 in Regulating Lipid Metabolism
Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), a molecular chaperone, is overexpressed in patients suffering from obesity, fatty liver, hyperlipidemia and diabetes. GRP78, therefore, can be not only a biomarker to predict the progression and prognosis of obesity and metabolic diseases but also a potential therapeutic target for anti-obesity treatment.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Plant Extract and Infertility
Infertility is a couple’s inability to conceive after one year of unprotected regular intercourse.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Elevation (Emotion)
Elevation is an emotion elicited by witnessing virtuous acts of remarkable moral goodness. It is experienced as a distinct feeling of warmth and expansion that is accompanied by appreciation and affection for the individual whose exceptional conduct is being observed. Elevation motivates those who experience it to open up to, affiliate with, and assist others. Elevation makes an individual feel lifted up and optimistic about humanity.
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Suprachoroidal Delivery of Therapeutic Agents
Suprachoroidal drug delivery technology has advanced rapidly and emerged as a promising administration route for a variety of therapeutic candidates, targeting multiple ocular diseases, ranging from neovascular age-related macular degeneration to choroidal melanoma. This entry summarizes the latest preclinical and clinical progress in suprachoroidal delivery of therapeutic agents, focusing on small molecule suspensions.
  • 1.2K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Chumash Traditional Medicine
Chumash traditional medicine is a type of traditional medicine practiced by the Chumash people of the southern coastal regions of California . Chumash medicine focused on treating mind, spirit, and body alike to promote the wellness of both the individual and the larger community. Healing practices included a knowledge of local plants, as well as a mix of spiritual practices including prayer, singing, and dancing. Post-European contact, Chumash healers adapted these methods to treat changes in environment and the introduction of deadly diseases. Prevention was key in promoting health, and healers took responsibility for ensuring all people worked and felt valued in the community. In the modern day, certain medicinal practices are viewed as controversial, including the treatment of menstruating women, the use of sacred datura, and the consumption of dangerous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Palliative Care
For EAPC, palliative care is the active, total care to improve the quality of life of patients, whose disease is unresponsive to curative treatment. It takes a holistic approach, addressing physical, psychosocial and spiritual care, including the treatment of pain and other symptoms. Palliative care is interdisciplinary in its approach and encompasses the care of the patient and their family and should be available in any location including hospital, hospice and community. 
  • 1.2K
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Dystroglycanopathy
Dystroglycanopathy is a collective term referring to muscular dystrophies with abnormal glycosylation of dystroglycan. At least 18 causative genes of dystroglycanopathy have been identified, and its clinical symptoms are diverse, ranging from severe congenital to adult-onset limb-girdle types. 
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Takotsubo Syndrome
Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) represents a form of acute heart failure featured by reversible left ventricular systolic dysfunction. The management during the acute phase is mainly performed with supportive pharmacological (diuretics, ACE-inhibitors/angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs), anticoagulants, antiarrhythmics, non-catecholamine inotropics (levosimendan), and non-pharmacological (mechanical circulatory and respiratory support) therapy, due to the wide clinical presentation and course of the disease. However, there is a gap in evidence and there are no randomized and adequately powered studies on clinical effectiveness of therapeutic approaches. Some evidence supports the use ACE-inhibitors/ARBs at long-term. A tailored approach based on cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular risk factors is strongly suggested for long-term management. The urgent need for evidence-based treatment approaches is also reflected by the prognosis following TTS. The acute phase of the disease can be accompanied by various cardiovascular complications. In addition, long term outcome of TTS patients is also related to non-cardiovascular comorbidities. Physical triggers such as hypoxia and acute neurological disorders in TTS are associated with a poor outcome.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Osteoclast-Mediated Bone Disease
Astronauts are at risk of losing 1.0% to 1.5% of their bone mass for every month they spend in space despite their adherence to diets and exercise regimens designed to protect their skeletal systems. This loss is the result of microgravity-related impairment of osteocyte and osteoblast function and the consequent upregulation of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. This entry describes the ontogeny of osteoclast hematopoietic stem cells and the contributions macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL), and the calcineurin pathways make in osteoclast differentiation and provides details of bone formation, the osteoclast cytoskeleton, the immune regulation of osteoclasts, and osteoclast mechanotransduction on Earth, in space, and under conditions of simulated microgravity. The entry discusses the need to better understand how osteoclasts are able to function in zero gravity and reviews current and prospective therapies that may be used to treat osteoclast-mediated bone disease.
  • 1.2K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
Recognition of and response to pathogens and tissue injury is driven by the innate immune system via activation of pattern recognition receptors. One of the many patterns recognized is RNA and, while several receptors bind RNA, Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is well placed for initial recognition of RNA molecules due to its localization within the endosome. There is a growing body of work describing a role for TLR3 in maintenance of vascular homeostasis. For example, TLR3 deficiency has been shown to play repair and remodeling roles in the systemic vasculature and in lung parenchyma. A hallmark of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is pulmonary vascular remodeling, yet drivers and triggers of this remodeling remain incompletely understood. Based on its role in the systemic vasculature, our group discovered reduced endothelial TLR3 expression in PAH and revealed a protective role for a TLR3 agonist in rodent models of pulmonary hypertension.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Carotid Body
Overview of the physiology of the adult carotid body, the main peripheral chemoreceptor in mammals, which contains a physiologically relevant germinal niche with multipotent neural crest-derived stem cells and restricted progenitors from both neural and mesenchymal lineages. The carotid body (CB), a neural-crest-derived organ and the main arterial chemoreceptor in mammals, is composed of clusters of cells called glomeruli. 
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Veterinary Diagnostics of Honeybee Diseases
This entry is a review dealing with the veterinary diagnostic approach in honeybee colonies especially in case of common virus diseases. It presents the step-by-step methods a veterinarian should perform when facing an ill honeybee colony and focusses on virus diseases in adult honeybees. 
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Alcoholic Korsakoff Syndrome
Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome (AKS), Korsakoff syndrome is an amnestic disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency associated with prolonged ingestion of alcohol. There is a similar condition seen in non-alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. This neurological disorder is caused by a lack of thiamine in the brain, and is also exacerbated by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. When Wernicke encephalopathy accompanies alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome the combination is called Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome; however, a recognized episode of Wernicke encephalopathy is not always obvious. The syndrome and psychosis are named after Sergei Korsakoff, a Russian neuropsychiatrist who discovered the syndrome during the late 19th century.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Lysyl Oxidase
The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family members are secreted copper-dependent amine oxidases, comprised of five paralogues: LOX and LOX-like l-4 (LOXL1-4), which are characterized by catalytic activity contributing to the remodeling of the cross-linking of the structural extracellular matrix (ECM). ECM remodeling plays a key role in the angiogenesis surrounding tumors, whereby a corrupt tumor microenvironment (TME) takes shape. Primary liver cancer includes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), ranked as the seventh most common cancer globally, with limited therapeutic options for advanced stages. In recent years, a growing body of evidence has revealed the key roles of LOX family members in the pathogenesis of liver cancer and the shaping of TME, indicating their notable potential as therapeutic targets.
  • 1.2K
  • 07 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Race-Based Traumatic Stress
Race-based traumatic stress is the traumatic response to stress following a racial encounter. Robert T. Carter's (2007) theory of race-based traumatic stress implies that there are individuals of color who experience racially charged discrimination as traumatic, and often generate responses similar to post-traumatic stress. Race-based traumatic stress combines theories of stress, trauma and race-based discrimination to describe a particular response to negative racial encounters. Despite the limited research that examines race-based traumatic stress specifically, trauma research suggests that an individual's response to a stressor is highly dependent on that person's perception of the stressor; what one person may experience as traumatic, another person may not experience as such. These differing responses have been found to be strongly associated with each individual's ability to cope with the said stressor. According to Carter, a professor at Columbia University, race-based traumatic stress is an individual's response to racial discrimination as traumatic or outside of their ability to cope. Race-based traumatic stress can be experienced both directly and indirectly and can occur on an interpersonal level, institutional level, or cultural level. As such, research indicates that race-based traumatic stress can be demonstrated as a number of negative outcomes, including psychopathological symptoms, social inequities, and internalized racial oppression. Research has indicated that children, as well as adults, can experience and be impacted by the reaches of race-based traumatic stress. Through direct experience from peers and/or authority figures, as well as indirectly through media exposure and/or bearing witness to the racial discrimination of their parents, research suggests children of color are particularly vulnerable to race-based traumatic stress.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Nanoparticles in Male Infertility
Advancement in the field of nanotechnology has prompted the need to elucidate the deleterious effects of nanoparticles (NPs) on reproductive health. Many studies have reported on the health safety issues related to NPs by investigating their exposure routes, deposition and toxic effects on different primary and secondary organs but few studies have focused on NPs’ deposition in reproductive organs. Noteworthy, even fewer studies have dealt with the toxic effects of NPs on reproductive indices and sperm parameters (i.e. sperm number, motility and morphology) by evaluating, for instance, the histopathology of seminiferous tubules and testosterone levels. To date, the research suggests that NPs can easily cross the blood testes barrier and, after accumulation in the testis, induce adverse effects on spermatogenesis.
  • 1.1K
  • 12 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Atypical Antipsychotics and Metabolic Syndrome
Atypical antipsychotics (AAPs) are commonly prescribed medications to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorders and other psychotic disorders. However, they might cause metabolic syndrome (MetS) in terms of weight gain, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and high blood pressure, which are responsible for reduced life expectancy and poor adherence. Importantly, there is clear evidence that early metabolic disturbances can precede weight gain, even if the latter still remains the hallmark of AAPs use. In fact, AAPs interfere profoundly with glucose and lipid homeostasis acting mostly on hypothalamus, liver, pancreatic β-cells, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle. Their actions on hypothalamic centers via dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and histamine receptors affect neuropeptides and 5′AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity, thus producing a supraphysiological sympathetic outflow augmenting levels of glucagon and hepatic glucose production. In addition, altered insulin secretion, dyslipidemia, fat deposition in the liver and adipose tissues, and insulin resistance become aggravating factors for MetS. In clinical practice, among AAPs, olanzapine and clozapine are associated with the highest risk of MetS, whereas quetiapine, risperidone, asenapine and amisulpride cause moderate alterations. The new AAPs such as ziprasidone, lurasidone and the partial agonist aripiprazole seem more tolerable on the metabolic profile. However, these aspects must be considered together with the differences among AAPs in terms of their efficacy, where clozapine still remains the most effective. Intriguingly, there seems to be a correlation between AAP’s higher clinical efficacy and increase risk of metabolic alterations. Finally, a multidisciplinary approach combining psychoeducation and therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is proposed as a first-line strategy to avoid the MetS. In addition, pharmacological treatments are discussed as well.
  • 1.1K
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Glucocorticoid Resistance
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroid hormones that regulate the physiology of all mammalian tissues throughout life due to their diverse roles in development, growth, metabolism, and inflammation. In response to physiological cues and stressors, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis coordinates the systemic production and secretion of GCs from the adrenal glands in a circadian and stress-related manner to maintain tissue homeostasis. In turn, GCs mediate negative feed-back inhibiting secretion of the hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), limiting GC production.
  • 1.1K
  • 27 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Muscle-Related Plectinopathies
Plectin is a giant cytoskeletal crosslinker and intermediate filament stabilizing protein. Mutations in the human plectin gene (PLEC) cause several rare diseases that are grouped under the term plectinopathies. The most common disorder is autosomal recessive disease epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD), which is characterized by skin blistering and progressive muscle weakness. Besides EBS-MD, PLEC mutations lead to EBS with nail dystrophy, EBS-MD with a myasthenic syndrome, EBS with pyloric atresia, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type R17, or EBS-Ogna.
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Apr 2022
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