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Topic Review
β-Cell Regeneration
β-cell number and/or function is reduced in diabetes. Thus, inducing the formation of new β-cells has been a major goal of diabetes research. However, the pathway(s) by which new β-cells form when preexisting β-cells are decreased in number or cease to function has remained obscure. Many pathways have been proposed, but definitive evidence, particularly in humans, has been lacking. Replication of preexisting β-cells, neogenesis from ducts, redifferentiation from β-cells that dedifferentiated under metabolic stress, and transdifferentiation from other cell types, particularly within the islet, are the major mechanisms that have been proposed for generating increased numbers of functional β-cells. 
  • 713
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors
SGLT2 (sodium-glucose cotransporter 2) inhibitors are a new class of antihyperglycaemic drugs that act on the proximal tubules of the kidney. They have shown efficacy in the management of diabetes mellitus type 2 and their cardiovascular and renal safety have been extensively investigated and confirmed in clinical trials. However, inter-individual differences in response to treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors may present in everyday clinical practice, and good predictors of glycemic response and the risk for adverse events in an individual patient are lacking.
  • 712
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Metabolic Dysfunction Biomarkers as Predictors of Early Diabetes
Lifestyle interventions must be made with considerable involvement of clinicians, and it should be considered that not all patients will respond in the same manner. Individuals with a high risk of diabetic progression will present compensatory metabolic mechanisms, translated into metabolic biomarkers that will therefore show potential predictive value to differentiate between progressors/non-progressors in T2D. Specific novel biomarkers are being proposed to entrap prediabetes and target progressors to achieve better outcomes.
  • 706
  • 15 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Genetic Basis of Primary Aldosteronism
Primary aldosteronism (PA), a condition characterized by autonomous aldosterone hypersecretion, constitutes the most common cause of secondary hypertension. The advent and wide application of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology led to the identification of several somatic and germline mutations associated with sporadic and familial forms of PA. Somatic mutations in ion-channel genes that participate in aldosterone biosynthesis, including KCNJ5, CACNA1D, ATP1A1, and ATP2B3, have been implicated in the development of aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs). On the other hand, germline variants in CLCN2, KCNJ5, CACNA1H, and CACNA1D genes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of the familial forms of PA, FH-II, FH-III, and F-IV, as well as PA associated with seizures and neurological abnormalities.
  • 703
  • 25 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Medical Applications of Molecular Biotechnologies in Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (HT) is a gender autoimmune disease that is manifested by chronic inflammation of the thyroid. Clinical trial studies (CTSs) use molecular biotechnologies (MB) to approach HT appearance. 
  • 701
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Adiponectin during Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes
Pregnancy involves a range of metabolic adaptations to supply adequate energy for fetal growth and development. Gestational diabetes (GDM) is defined as hyperglycemia with first onset during pregnancy. GDM is a recognized risk factor for both pregnancy complications and long-term maternal and offspring risk of cardiometabolic disease development. Pregnancy changes maternal metabolism, GDM can be viewed as a maladaptation by maternal systems to pregnancy, which may include mechanisms such as insufficient insulin secretion, dysregulated hepatic glucose output, mitochondrial dysfunction and lipotoxicity. Adiponectin is an adipose-tissue-derived adipokine that circulates in the body and regulates a diverse range of physiologic mechanisms including energy metabolism and insulin sensitivity. In pregnant women, circulating adiponectin levels decrease correspondingly with insulin sensitivity, and adiponectin levels are low in GDM.
  • 694
  • 21 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Syndrome T
Syndrome T, or SORSHOT, refers to persistent symptoms in patients affected by hypothyroidism who appear euthyroid by TSH levels. Seen in about 10% of hypothyroid patients, causes are unclear but likely include psychosomatic factors, inadequate treatment, autoimmunity, and neuropathy. Common symptoms are fatigue, heart-related issues, mood changes, weight gain, and pain. No standard treatment exists, but options may include combined hormone therapy, personalised dosing, and nutritional supplementation.
  • 692
  • 04 May 2026
Topic Review
Effects of Natural Products on Lipid Metabolism Disorders
Natural products that are extracted from the source and from concentrated, fractionated, and purified yielding, which are generally defined as bioactive compounds, have the ability to modulate lipid metabolism, improve insulin signaling, and protect against cardiovascular damage.
  • 677
  • 30 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Berberine in Diabetes and Related Complications Treatment
Berberine (BBR) is an isoquinoline alkaloid that can be extracted from herbs such as Coptis, Phellodendron, and Berberis. BBR has been widely used as a folk medicine to treat various disorders. It is a multi-target drug with multiple mechanisms. Studies have shown that it has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can also adjust intestinal microbial flora. 
  • 670
  • 12 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Effects of Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy on Epigenome
Worldwide, diabetes mellitus represents a growing health problem. If it occurs during pregnancy, it can increase the risk of various abnormalities in early and advanced life stages of exposed individuals due to fetal programming occurring in utero.
  • 670
  • 08 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Action in the Brain
Proper brain development essentially depends on the timed availability of sufficient amounts of thyroid hormone (TH). This, in turn, necessitates a tightly regulated expression of TH signaling components such as TH transporters, deiodinases, and TH receptors in a brain region- and cell-specific manner from early developmental stages onwards. Abnormal TH levels during critical stages, as well as mutations in TH signaling components that alter the global and/or local thyroidal state, result in detrimental consequences for brain development and neurological functions that involve alterations in central neurotransmitter systems. 
  • 668
  • 24 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Thyroid Antibodies in Autoimmune Thyroid Disease Diagnosis
Autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) refers to a spectrum of various diseases, with two extremes of clinical presentation, hypothyroidism (Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (HT) and hyperthyroidism (Graves–Basedow disease (GBD)). Both conditions are characterized by presenting a cellular and humoral autoimmune reaction, with an increase in the synthesis and secretion of antibodies directed toward various thyroid antigens, together with a phenomenon of thyrocyte necrosis and apoptosis (in HT) and a persistent thyrotropin-receptor stimulation (in GBD). The diagnosis of both entities is based on clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings. 
  • 668
  • 25 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Blood-Derived Microvesicles in Breast Cancer
Modifying and changing (energy) metabolism is a hall mark of cancer. But how to appraise metabolic changes in cancer patients? Cancer and benign cells shed microvesicles (MV) into the blood. These MV can be easily extracted and isolated. Targeted mass spectrometry of MV is able to differentiate not only between healthy controls and cancer patients, but between molecular breast cancer subtypes. Changes detected in some of these metabolites are indicators for a worse prognosis. In summary, metabolic profiling of MV yields promising biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of breast cancer. 
  • 666
  • 29 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Physiological Role of Bile Acids by Gut Microbiome
Bile acids (BAs) are produced from cholesterol in the liver and are termed primary BAs. Primary BAs are conjugated with glycine and taurine in the liver and then released into the intestine via the gallbladder. After the deconjugation of glycine or taurine by the gut microbiome, primary BAs are converted into secondary BAs by the gut microbiome through modifications such as dehydroxylation, oxidation, and epimerization. 
  • 666
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Inheritance, mitochondrial dysfunction and NAFLD-HCC
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignancy of the liver and the third-leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Currently, the global burden of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has dramatically overcome both viral and alcohol hepatitis thus becoming the main cause of HCC incidence. NAFLD pathogenesis is severely influenced by lifestyle and genetic predisposition, which together may precipitate HCC onset. One of the key events causatives of NAFLD progression towards HCC is represented by loss of mitochondrial adaptability in terms of activities, morphology and dynamics. Mounting evidence are suggesting that inherited variants in genes involved in fat accumulation, mitochondrial bioenergetics and genomic instability may accelerate disease course by worsening mitochondrial damage and remodeling its metabolism. This entry will discuss the impact of NAFLD-related genetic polymorphisms on mitochondrial defects and how they could contribute to the switching towards HCC. 
  • 661
  • 12 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Effects of Physical Activity and Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the most widespread diseases worldwide. Lifestyle interventions, including diet and physical activity (PA), are fundamental non-pharmacological components of T2DM therapy. Exercise interventions are strongly recommended for people with or at risk of developing or already with overt diabetes, but adherence to PA guidelines in this population is still challenging. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of T2DM patients, driven by differing residual β-cell functionality, as well as the possibility of practicing different types and intensities of PA, has led to the need to develop tailored exercise and training plans.
  • 655
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Pregnancy-Associated Plasma Protein (PAPP)-A2 in Physiology
The growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis plays fundamental roles during development, maturation, and aging. Members of this axis, composed of various ligands, receptors, and binding proteins, are regulated in a tissue- and time-specific manner that requires precise control that is not completely understood. Some of the most recent advances in understanding the implications of this axis in human growth are derived from the identifications of new mutations in the gene encoding the pregnancy-associated plasma protein PAPP-A2 protease that liberates IGFs from their carrier proteins in a selective manner to allow binding to the IGF receptor 1. The identification of three nonrelated families with mutations in the PAPP-A2 gene has shed light on how this protease affects human physiology. 
  • 653
  • 14 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Effects of Triclosan on the Reproductive System
Triclosan (TCS), 5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichloro phenoxy) phenol, is an endocrine-disrupting chemical often used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, or preservative. Triclosan is one of the antimicrobial agents used in cosmetic products, toothpaste, and disinfectants. Exposure to these compounds can lead to alterations in one or more signalling pathways, that may induce negative effects on reproduction, growth, survival, behavioural, and obesity. These changes can be passed on to subsequent generations. Studies in animals and humans suggest the possibility of harmful health outcomes, particularly for the reproductive system. 
  • 645
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Biomarkers in Sepsis
According to “Sepsis-3” consensus, sepsis is a life-threatening clinical syndrome caused by a dysregulated inflammatory host response to infection. A rapid identification of sepsis is mandatory, as the extent of the organ damage triggered by both the pathogen itself and the host’s immune response could abruptly evolve to multiple organ failure and ultimately lead to the death of the patient.
  • 645
  • 14 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Litter Size Reduction Model: Short- and Long-Term Effects
Litter size reduction model is an interesting model to learn the late impact of early overnutrition. The variable “litter size” must be taken into account in the development of any experimental ome with animals, regardless of the outcome to be investigated. Care must be taken to extrapolate the outcomes of this model to human beings, since mothers usually have one baby per pregnancy.
  • 640
  • 18 May 2022
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