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Topic Review
Immune Activation in HIV-1 Infection
Systemic chronic immune activation and CD4+ T-cell depletion characterize the progression of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection toward acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
  • 947
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Antiviral Agents against Flavivirus Protease
Flaviviruses cause a significant amount of mortality and morbidity, especially in regions where they are endemic. A recent example is the outbreak of Zika virus throughout the world. Development of antiviral drugs against different viral targets is as important as the development of vaccines. During viral replication, a single polyprotein precursor (PP) is produced and further cleaved into individual proteins by a viral NS2B-NS3 protease complex together with host proteases.
  • 944
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Social Determinants of Health and Microbiome in Children
The evolving field of microbiome research offers an excellent opportunity for biomarker identification, understanding drug metabolization disparities, and improving personalized medicine. However, the complexities of host–microbe ecological interactions hinder clinical transferability. Among other factors, the microbiome is deeply influenced by age and social determinants of health, including environmental factors such as diet and lifestyle conditions. In this entry, the bidirectionality of social and host–microorganism interactions in health will be discussed.
  • 943
  • 20 Dec 2021
Topic Review
N-Glycans’ Effect on Pathologic Protein Conformations in Disease
Glycosylation, a prevalent post-translational modification, plays a pivotal role in regulating intricate cellular processes by covalently attaching glycans to macromolecules. Dysregulated glycosylation is linked to a spectrum of diseases, encompassing cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, congenital disorders, infections, and inflammation. Considering the allosteric effects of N-glycans in regulating protein conformation, with potential implications for its assembly and function, it is of no surprise that dysregulated N-glycosylation has been implicated in several disease-associated human proteins. Furthermore, these glycans may play a pivotal role in modulating the conformation of pathogen-associated proteins, influencing their infectivity within human cells.
  • 943
  • 06 Mar 2024
Topic Review
HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND)
The chronic infection established by the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) produces serious CD4+ T cell immunodeficiency despite the decrease in HIV-1 ribonucleic acid (RNA) levels and the raised life expectancy of people living with HIV-1 (PLWH) through treatment with combined antiretroviral therapies (cART). HIV-1 enters the central nervous system (CNS), where perivascular macrophages and microglia are infected. Serious neurodegenerative symptoms related to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are produced by infection of the CNS. Despite advances in the treatment of this infection, HAND significantly contribute to morbidity and mortality globally. 
  • 942
  • 23 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in LTCF
This entry presents the current knowledge about prevalence and risk factors for colonization by multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) in long-term care facilities (LTCF) providing useful references to establish objectives for implementing successful antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASP) that might stop the growing trend of MDRO in this setting. 
  • 939
  • 05 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Inorganic Nanoparticles Carrying Amphotericin B
Amphotericin B is the oldest antifungal molecule which is still currently widely used in clinical practice. Recently, its redox properties (i.e., both prooxidant and antioxidant) have been highlighted in the literature as mechanisms involved in both its activity and its toxicity. Interestingly, similar properties can be described for inorganic nanoparticles. Moreover, in a majority of the published studies, inorganic nanoparticles carrying Amphotericin B are described as having a synergistic activity directly related to the rupture of the redox homeostasis of the pathogen (i.e., fungi, parasites, and yeasts). Consequently, due to the unique properties of inorganic nanoparticles (e.g., magnetism, intrinsic anti-infectious properties, stimuli-triggered responses, etc.), these nanomaterials (i.e., inorganic nanoparticles carrying Amphotericin B) may represent a new generation of medicine that can synergistically enhance the antimicrobial properties of Amphotericin B.
  • 937
  • 24 Oct 2023
Topic Review
In Silico Strategies in Tuberculosis Drug Discovery
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious threat to global public health, responsible for an estimated 1.5 million mortalities in 2018. Discovering new and more potent antibiotics that target novel TB protein targets is an attractive strategy towards controlling the global TB epidemic. In silico strategies can be applied at multiple stages of the drug discovery paradigm to expedite the identification of novel anti-TB therapeutics.
  • 936
  • 29 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Gut Microbiota, Immune Development, and Fecal Microbiota Transplantation
The enormous and diverse population of microorganisms residing in the digestive tracts of humans and animals influence the development, regulation, and function of the immune system. Recently, the understanding of the association between autoimmune diseases and gut microbiota has been improved due to the innovation of high-throughput sequencing technologies with high resolutions.
  • 936
  • 30 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Complications of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccination
SARS-CoV-2 has dramatically spread worldwide and emerged as a major pandemic which has left an unprecedented mark on healthcare systems and economies worldwide. As the understanding of the virus and its epidemiology continues to grow, the acute phase clinical symptoms and long-term and vaccine-related complications are becoming more apparent. With heterogeneity in presentations, comparisons may be drawn between COVID-19-related sequelae and vaccination related adverse events. 
  • 935
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nucleic Acid Testing of SARS-CoV-2
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a large global outbreak. It is accordingly important to develop accurate and rapid diagnostic methods. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method including reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most widely used assay for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Along with the RT-PCR method, digital PCR has emerged as a powerful tool to quantify nucleic acid of the virus with high accuracy and sensitivity. Non-PCR based techniques such as reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) are considered to be rapid and simple nucleic acid detection methods and were reviewed in this entry. Non-conventional molecular diagnostic methods including next-generation sequencing (NGS), CRISPR-based assays and nanotechnology are improving the accuracy and sensitivity of COVID-19 diagnosis. 
  • 933
  • 04 Aug 2021
Topic Review
ESAT-6 a Major Virulence Factor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) virulence relies on its ability to manipulate host macrophages, where it establishes intracellular niches to cross mucosal barriers and avoid pathogen destruction. First, Mtb subverts the endocytic pathway, preventing phagolysosome fusion and proteolytic digestion. Second, it activates innate immune responses to induce its transmigration into the lung parenchyma. There, infected macrophages attract more permissive cells, expanding intracellular niches. Mtb induces the adaptive responses that stimulate its containment and encourage a long life inside granulomas. Finally, the pathogen induces necrotic cell death in macrophages, granuloma destruction, and lung cavitation for transmission. Common to all these events is the major virulence factor: the “early secreted antigenic target of 6 kDa” (ESAT-6, also called EsxA). The loss or gain of mycobacterial virulence is closely linked to the ability of mycobacteria to produce and secrete ESAT-6, and the extension of virulence is correlated with the amount of protein secreted. ESAT-6 secretion from the bacilli requires both the expression of the esx-1 locus for the type VII secretion apparatus and the transcription of both the ESAT-6 gene (esxA) and the culture filtrate protein 10 (CFP-10) gene (esx-B) contained in the RD1 region of the genome. In addition, it requires the protein EspA, which is not encoded in the esx-1 locus but in the extended espACD operon adjacent to RD8. All species and strains deleted in the esx-1 locus, the internal RD1 region, or the esx-1 extended locus espACD exhibit an attenuated phenotype. Mutants with deletions on ESX-1 of Mtb are attenuated in virulence, translating into reduced survival of mycobacteria in cultured macrophages or in experimental animal models of TB. Curiously, the saprophyte species M. smegmatis (Ms) also encodes for an ESX-1 apparatus; however, it does not appear to confer Ms virulence capabilities, as demonstrated by its inability to survive in human macrophages or in amoeba in the environment. Predatory amoeba may have contributed to the evolutionary pressure that selected mycobacterial pathogens for intracellular survival. 
  • 933
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
SPR Biosensing of SARS-CoV-2 Entry Inhibitors
This work compiles recent advancements on the discovery of SARS-CoV2 inhibitors by SPR analysis. One of the major benefits of SPR biosensing is the possibility of easily investigating molecular interactions. Owing to this quality, SPR biosensor technology has become a first-line tool for analyzing the binding properties of potential drug candidates against COVID-19. Overall, SPR biosensors seem to offer a single methodology for attaining full kinetic profiles while providing the screening of fragment libraries and the validation of fragment hits.
  • 932
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
HBV Reactivation in Hemato-Oncologic Patients with COVID-19
Onco-hematologic patients are highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and, once infected, frequently develop COVID-19 due to the immunosuppression caused by tumor growth, chemotherapy and immunosuppressive therapy. In addition, COVID-19 has also been recognized as a further cause of hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation, since its treatment includes the administration of corticosteroids and some immunosuppressive drugs.
  • 932
  • 27 May 2022
Topic Review
Oral Manifestations of COVID-19 in Hospitalized Patients
The oral cavity represents a target of SARS-CoV-2, and oral lesions are observed in both non-hospitalized and hospitalized patients. Oral ulcers, cheilitis, and tongue lesions were more common in patients before hospitalization, while perioral pressure ulcers, macroglossia, blisters, and oral candidiasis were more recurrent in patients during hospitalization.  An accurate oral examination during the hospital admission of all confirmed COVID-19 cases is encouraged to recognize oral early manifestations and to apply appropriate treatments.
  • 931
  • 13 Jan 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in Algeria
To explore the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in Algeria, a dataset comprising ninety-five genomes originating from SARS-CoV-2 sampled from Algeria and other countries worldwide, from 24 December 2019, through 4 March 2021, was thoroughly examined. 
  • 929
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Risk of Lung Cancer
Lung cancer accounts for approximately 18.4% of the total cancer-related deaths, the highest of all cancer types. The prognosis of lung cancer is relatively unfavorable compared to that of other malignancies, and as a prognosis largely depends on the stage of onset, thus, the early diagnosis of lung cancer is very important. Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is a known risk factor for lung cancer.
  • 929
  • 16 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Severe Sepsis
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogen often encountered in a healthcare setting. It has consistently ranked among the most frequent pathogens seen in nosocomial infections, particularly bloodstream and respiratory tract infections. Aside from having intrinsic resistance to many antibiotics, it rapidly acquires resistance to novel agents. Given the high mortality of pseudomonal infections generally, and pseudomonal sepsis particularly, and with the rise of resistant strains, treatment can be very challenging for the clinician.
  • 927
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nucleoside Analogs and Coronaviruses
Coronaviruses (CoVs) are positive-sense RNA enveloped viruses, members of the family Coronaviridae, that cause infections in a broad range of mammals including humans. Several CoV species lead to mild upper respiratory infections typically associated with common colds. However, three human CoV (HCoV) species: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)-CoV-1, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, are responsible for severe respiratory diseases at the origin of two recent epidemics (SARS and MERS), and of the current COronaVIrus Disease 19 (COVID-19), respectively.
  • 926
  • 24 May 2021
Topic Review
Treatment of Invasive Candidiasis
Candida species, belonging to commensal microbial communities in humans, cause opportunistic infections in individuals with impaired immunity. Pathogens encountered in more than 90% cases of invasive candidiasis include C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and C. parapsilosis. The most frequently diagnosed invasive infection is candidemia. About 50% of candidemia cases result in deep-seated infection due to hematogenous spread. The sensitivity of blood cultures in autopsy-proven invasive candidiasis ranges from 21% to 71%. Non-cultural methods (beta-D-glucan, T2Candida assays), especially beta-D-glucan in combination with procalcitonin, appear promising in the exclusion of invasive candidiasis with high sensitivity (98%) and negative predictive value (95%). There is currently a clear deficiency in approved sensitive and precise diagnostic techniques. Omics technologies seem promising, though require further development and study. Therapeutic options for invasive candidiasis are generally limited to four classes of systemic antifungals (polyenes, antimetabolite 5-fluorocytosine, azoles, echinocandins) with the two latter being highly effective and well-tolerated and hence the most widely used.
  • 924
  • 21 Jun 2022
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