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Topic Review
Role of NADPH Oxidases in Pathologies
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases (NADPH oxidases, NOX), were discovered in immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, in the 1970s. Upon phagocytosis of pathogens, the enzymatic complex is activated and triggers O2− production in an “oxidative burst” that acts to kill pathogens. Over time, enzymes with a similar function located in various tissues have been identified and subsequently grouped into the NOX family of enzymes. The mitochondrial electron transport chain was soon demonstrated as another source of O2− due to a “leaky” electron transport system, its O2− scavenged by superoxide dismutase (SOD) into H2O2.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Monocytes in Chronic Heart Failure
A long-term condition known as chronic heart failure (CHF) is an ongoing difficulty of the heart in pumping blood enriched in oxygen and required nutrients around the body’s tissues. CHF pathogenesis is associated with various causes, and inflammation is one of the most important factors promoting the condition. In addition, monocytes, a group of cells present in the blood and infiltrating tissues, are known to participate in both pro- and anti-inflammatory processes and thus affect myocardial remodeling over time.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Viral Myocarditis - From Pathophysiology to Treatment
The pathophysiology of viral myocarditis and its sequelae leading to severe heart failure with a poor prognosis is not fully understood and represents a significant public health issue globally. Most likely, at a certain point, besides viral persistence, several etiological types merge into a common pathogenic autoimmune process leading to chronic inflammation and tissue remodeling, ultimately resulting in the clinical phenotype of dilated cardiomyopathy. 
  • 1.2K
  • 05 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Role of Epicardial Adipose Tissue in Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of death worldwide. Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is defined as a fat depot localized between the myocardial surface and the visceral layer of the pericardium and is a type of visceral fat. EAT is one of the most important risk factors for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events and a promising new therapeutic target in CVDs. In health conditions, EAT has a protective function, including protection against hypothermia or mechanical stress, providing myocardial energy supply from free fatty acid and release of adiponectin. In patients with obesity, metabolic syndrome, or diabetes mellitus, EAT becomes a deleterious tissue promoting the development of CVDs. 
  • 1.2K
  • 08 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Management of Fluid Overload in Acute Settings
This entry provides a comprehensive review of fluid overload management, specifically targeting therapeutic strategies for patients with diuretic resistance or refractory volume overload. It covers the pathophysiology of edema formation and the challenges associated with fluid removal in patients with chronic conditions such as congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, and chronic kidney disease. Key treatments discussed include combination therapy with loop and thiazide diuretics, use of alternative loop diuretics with higher bioavailability, and the comparative effectiveness of bolus versus continuous drip loop diuretics. For patients unresponsive to pharmacologic management, the entry also examines mechanical ultrafiltration methods, comparing hemodialysis (HD), continuous venovenous hemofiltration (CVVH), and specialized CHF solutions (Aquamid). The entry emphasizes evidence-based approaches, highlighting studies that support optimized fluid management to improve patient outcomes and reduce hospital readmissions.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Oct 2024
Topic Review
Primary Cilia in Acquired Heart Disease
Primary cilia are non-motile plasma membrane extrusions that display a variety of receptors and mechanosensors. Loss of function results in ciliopathies, which have been strongly linked with congenital heart disease, as well as abnormal development and function of most organ systems. 
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation
Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is an increasingly widespread percutaneous intervention of aortic valve replacement (AVR). The target population for TAVI is mainly composed of elderly, frail patients with severe aortic stenosis (AS), multiple comorbidities, and high perioperative mortality risk for surgical AVR (sAVR). These vulnerable patients could benefit from cardiac rehabilitation (CR) programs after percutaneous intervention. To date, no major guidelines currently recommend CR after TAVI. However, emerging scientific evidence shows that CR in patients undergoing TAVI is safe, and improves exercise tolerance and quality of life. Moreover, preliminary data prove that a CR program after TAVI has the potential to reduce mortality during follow-up, even if randomized clinical trials are needed for confirmation. 
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Apr 2021
Topic Review
ICIs-Related Cardiotoxicity in Different Types of Cancer
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), antibodies that target the checkpoints in immune cells, work to activate inhibited T-cells and other cells of the innate and adaptive arms, resulting in the robust activation of the immune system and productive antitumor immune responses. However, ICIs-related cardiotoxicity has been recognized as a rare but fatal consequence. Although there has been extensive research based on different types of ICIs, these studies have not indicated whether cardiotoxicity is specific to a type of cancer.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Jul 2022
Topic Review
KCNJ5 Mutation in Aldosterone Producing Adenoma
The discovery of the KCNJ5 somatic mutation in aldosteroene producing adenoma (APA) in 2011 and the development of specific CYP11B2 antibodies in 2012 have greatly advanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of primary aldosteronism. PA leads to abnormalities in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and is known to increase the incidence of atrial fibrillation, heart failure, and stroke by 3.52, 2.05, and 2.58 times compared to hypertension due to essential hypertension.
  • 1.2K
  • 26 Aug 2022
Topic Review
MRI for Evaluating DKD Noninvasively
Renal magnetic resonance techniques provide noninvasive information on renal volume, function, metabolism, perfusion, oxygenation, and microstructural alterations, without the need for exogenous contrast media.
  • 1.2K
  • 10 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Bilberry Supplementation on Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disease Risk
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) is one of the richest natural sources of anthocyanins which give berries their red/purple/blue coloration. Anthocyanins are powerful antioxidants and are reported to play an important role in the prevention of metabolic disease and CVD as well as cancer and other conditions. 
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Diagnosis of Heart Failure in Patients after COVID-19
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It can lead to myocardial damage. Heart failure (HF) is a significant global health concern and is characterized as a clinical syndrome with symptoms caused by structural and/or functional abnormalities of the heart, confirmed by elevated natriuretic peptide levels and evidence of pulmonary or systemic congestion. The relationship between COVID-19 and heart failure is complex. SARS-CoV-2 can cause cardiac damage through the activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Understanding the interactions between the disease and viruses is crucial for optimal patient care. However, the validity of screening for cardiovascular complications after COVID-19 remains unconfirmed, and individualized diagnosis procedures are necessary based on the patient's clinical symptoms.
  • 1.2K
  • 19 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids DHA and EPA
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) that includes myocardial infarction and stroke, is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis, the primary underlying cause of CVD, can be controlled by pharmacological and dietary interventions, including n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) supplementation. n-3 PUFA supplementation, primarily consisting of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), has shown promise in reducing atherosclerosis by modulating risk factors, including triglyceride levels and vascular inflammation.
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Stereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation
Ventricular tachycardia is a type of arrhythmia (heart rhythm disorder) characterized by fast heart rate (exceeding 100 beats per minute), originating from abnormal electrical impulse localized in heart ventricles. The electrophysiology-guided noninvasive cardiac radioablation, also known as STAR (stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation), is an emerging treatment method of non-invasive treatment for ventricular tachycardia persistent after conventional methods of ablation.
  • 1.2K
  • 10 May 2021
Topic Review
Management of Acute Coronary Syndrome in Cancer Patients
Cancer patients have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and, notably, a significant prevalence of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). It has been shown that an elevated presence of cardiovascular risk factors in this setting leads to an interaction between these two conditions, influencing their therapeutic strategies and contributing to higher mortality. 
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Genetic Mutations Associated Myocardial Bridges
Myocardial bridging (MB) is a congenital coronary artery anomaly that has limited molecular disease state characterization. Though a large portion of individuals may be asymptomatic, the myocardial ischemia caused by this anomaly can lead to angina, acute coronary syndrome, coronary artery disease, and sudden cardiac death in patients.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles and COVID-19-Related Thrombosis
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a term used to describe a heterogeneous group of vesicles located in different types of tissues or biological fluids such as blood, urine, saliva, breast milk and the amniotic, cerebrospinal, synovial, seminal fluid and bronchial lavage. The role of EVs in infectious diseases has been particularly controversial over the last years. It has been shown that they can influence the recipient cell activities by transporting viral proteins, RNA, DNA and receptors from infected cells to healthy cells and thus increasing the spread of virus infection. Thus, EVs may serve as potential predictors of COVID-19 severity.  Importantly, due to their stability in the circulation, low immunogenicity, biocompatibility and biodegradation, the EVs are considered suitable for designing new therapeutic strategies or delivery systems for a vaccine against the SARS CoV-2 infection 
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Syncope Management
Syncope is a highly prevalent clinical condition characterized by a rapid, complete, and brief loss of consciousness, followed by full recovery caused by cerebral hypoperfusion. This symptom carries significance, as its potential underlying causes may involve the heart, blood pressure, or brain, leading to a spectrum of consequences, from sudden death to compromised quality of life. Various factors contribute to syncope, and adhering to a precise diagnostic pathway can enhance diagnostic accuracy and treatment effectiveness.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Statin Residual Cardiovascular Disease Risk
Several randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) lowering by using statins, including high-doses of strong statins, reduced the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, among the eight RCTs which investigated the effect of statins vs. placebos on the development of CVD, 56–79% of patients had the residual CVD risk after the trials. In three RCTs which investigated the effect of a high dose vs. a usual dose of statins on the development of CVD, 78–87% of patients in the high-dose statin arms still had the CVD residual risk after the trials. An analysis of the characteristics of patients in the RCTs suggests that elevated triglyceride (TG) and reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), the existence of obesity/insulin resistance, and diabetes may be important metabolic factors which determine the statin residual CVD risk. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Outflow Tract Valves of the Vertebrate Heart
The anatomical elements that in humans guard the unidirectional blood flow from the cardiac ventricles to the aortic and pulmonary arteries are the arterial (semilunar) valves. The valve that prevents blood backflow from the aorta to the left ventricle is the aortic valve, while that which performs this function between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle is the pulmonary or pulmonic valve. The main medical interest in arterial valves is that their congenital malformations and diseases over a lifetime are clinically relevant. Although both valves are subject to similar complications, those affecting the aortic valve cause the most severe effects.
  • 1.2K
  • 04 Oct 2022
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