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Topic Review
Treatment for Lung Carcinoids
Lung carcinoids are divided into typical and atypical. Most tumors are slow-growing yet have malignant potential, which is more common in patients harboring atypical carcinoids. Most patients with lung carcinoids are diagnosed before the occurrence of distant metastases. Surgery is curative in most of these cases. In individuals with distant metastases, the treatment is more controversial. A watch-and-wait policy has been proposed in asymptomatic individuals with a low proliferative rate. Possible treatment options include somatostatin analogues, chemotherapy, mTOR inhibitors, and radionuclide therapy with 177Lu-DOTA-octreotate, depending on somatostatin receptor expression, proliferative rate, bone marrow and kidney function, and the patient’s general health.
  • 202
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Abnormalities in Metabolic Pathways of Phosphoinositides
Myo-inositol belongs to one of the sugar alcohol groups known as cyclitols. Phosphatidylinositols are one of the derivatives of Myo-inositol, and constitute important mediators in many intracellular processes such as cell growth, cell differentiation, receptor recycling, cytoskeletal organization, and membrane fusion. They also have even more functions that are essential for cell survival. Mutations in genes encoding phosphatidylinositols and their derivatives can lead to many disorders. 
  • 325
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Suprachoroidal Injections for Photoreceptor Loss
Suprachoroidal (SC) injections offer a potential therapeutic approach for diseases involving photoreceptor loss. These injections involve delivering therapeutic agents or cells into the space between the choroid and the sclera, known as the suprachoroidal space (SCS). This targeted delivery allows for direct access to the choroid, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and photoreceptor cells. Many retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa can have shown positive responses to suprachoroidal treatments in multiple studies. Notably, suprachoroidal injections offer a novel route of administration for treatments such as gene therapy and stem cell treatments.
  • 271
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Biomechanics of Suprachoroidal Injection
Suprachoroidal injections are a valuable strategy for ocular drug delivery, with effectiveness dependent on various parameters: injection force, injectate volume, formulation characteristics, and compartmentalization. For example, viscosity plays a critical role, as higher viscosity agents favor anterior drug localization, while lower viscosity enables greater posterior delivery. Higher viscosity formulations also slow clearance rates, prolonging the drug's duration of action. Particle size in suspensions is another key factor. Larger particles remain in the suprachoroidal space for longer periods and are less prone to washout by choroidal circulation, thereby extending therapeutic effects. By skillfully manipulating these parameters, researchers and clinicians can personalize drug delivery based on the specific location and chronicity of the ocular disease being treated, leading to improved treatment outcomes and patient satisfaction. This advancement marks a significant step toward precision medicine in ophthalmology.
  • 248
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Suprachoroidal Injections for Macular Edema
Macular edema is characterized by the accumulation of fluid in the macula, leading to vision impairment. Suprachoroidal injections can help with macular edema by delivering medication directly to the affected area, allowing for targeted treatment. Suprachoroidal injections offer several advantages in treating macular edema such as providing a more localized delivery of medication compared to other route and allowing for sustained drug release, which prolongs the duration of the therapeutic effect. This approach therefore minimizes potential side effects and systemic exposure to the medication as well as improving patient comfort. Depending on the exact etiology of macular edema, different substances can be delivered through this method, whether is is triamcinolone acetonide or corticosteroids.  
  • 147
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Cell Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta with a reduction in dopamine concentration in the striatum. It is a substantial loss of dopaminergic neurons that is responsible for the classic triad of PD symptoms, i.e., resting tremor, muscular rigidity, and bradykinesia. Several therapies for PD may only offer symptomatic relief and do not address the underlying neurodegeneration of PD. The developments in cellular reprogramming have enabled the development of previously unachievable cell therapies and patient-specific modeling of PD through Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs). iPSCs possess the inherent capacity for pluripotency, allowing for their directed differentiation into diverse cell lineages, such as dopaminergic neurons, thus offering a promising avenue for addressing the issue of neurodegeneration within the context of PD. 
  • 228
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Rationale and Techniques of Suprachoroidal Injections
Suprachoroidal injection (SC) is an innovative drug delivery method that has the potential to greatly revolutionize the field of ophthalmology. In fact, this technique has shown to possess many advantages over certain traditional routes of administration such as its simplicity as well as its ability to bypass biological barriers. Notably, access to the SCS can be achieved using microcatheters, needles, or microneedles. Each technique has its own benefits and drawbacks, but so far, microneedle-based injections offer precise control, broad coverage, and improved safety compared to standard needles, making them the most promising route for drug administration.
  • 267
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Ocular Medication Routes of Administration
Ocular drug administration encompasses a range of routes, each with its own advantages and limitations. The available methods include systemic delivery (such as oral, intravenous, and subcutaneous routes) as well as local delivery options (including topical eye drops, periocular or intravitreal injections, and intravitreal implants). While these approaches can be effective in delivering medications to the eye, they also have inherent drawbacks, which will be explored in greater detail in this entry. Notably, understanding the strengths and limitations of these ocular drug administration routes is crucial for optimizing therapy and achieving the desired therapeutic outcomes while minimizing potential adverse effects.   
  • 365
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway in Blood Malignancies
Blood malignancies remain a therapeutic challenge despite the development of numerous treatment strategies. The phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) signaling pathway plays a central role in regulating many cellular functions, including cell cycle, proliferation, quiescence, and longevity. Therefore, dysregulation of this pathway is a characteristic feature of carcinogenesis.
  • 253
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Adjunctive Hemoadsorption Therapy with CytoSorb in Septic/Vasoplegic Shock
There are no approved therapies to modulate the excessive immune response and limit hyperinflammation with the goal of preventing related organ failure and death. In this context, extracorporeal blood purification therapies aiming at the alteration of the host inflammatory response through broad-spectrum, non-selective removal of inflammatory mediators have come into focus. A novel hemoadsorption device (CytoSorb®, CytoSorbents Inc., Princeton, NJ, USA) has shown promising results in patients with hyperinflammation from various origins. Although a significant body of literature exists, there is ongoing research to address many important remaining questions, including the optimal selection of patient groups who might benefit the most, optimal timing for therapy initiation, optimal schedule for adsorber exchanges and therapy duration, as well as an investigation into the potential removal of concomitant antibiotics and other medications. 
  • 274
  • 04 Dec 2023
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