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Topic Review
Type I Interferons
Interferons (IFNs) are a heterogenous group of proteins that can be classified into three families (Type I, II, and III) based on distinct functions and characteristics. The family of human type I IFN is composed of 5 subgroups: IFN-α, -β, -κ, -ε, and -ω, whereas the type II IFN group only contains IFN-γ. Type III IFNs are composed of four IFN-λ proteins.
  • 1.6K
  • 06 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Amygdala Neuroinflammation and Psychiatric Disorders
Depression and anxiety disorder are the most common mental diseases affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The comorbidity rate of anxiety disorder and depression is very high, with 74% of depressed patients having anxiety symptoms, while 61% of anxious patients have depression symptoms. Stress exposure is widely accepted as a critical contributing factor to psychological and neuropathological disorders. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, the high pressure of increasingly demanding work and life has led to a sharp rise in the incidence of mental diseases. Inflammation induces psychological and neuropathological disorders by influencing neuronal excitability, neurotransmitter release, receptor, and transporter expression through peripheral hormones and autonomic responses. A number of animal and human studies have revealed that the amygdala, ventral hippocampus, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) are extensively involved in the occurrence of anxiety, depression, and related behavioral regulation. Among them, the amygdala, one of the kernel brain regions mediating stress-coping located in the deep temporal lobe, is considered the hub center for processing emotionally salient stimuli and implementing appropriate behavioral responses.
  • 1.6K
  • 23 Feb 2023
Topic Review
NLRC4 Inflammasome
The NLR family apoptosis inhibitory proteins (NAIP)-NLR family caspase-associated recruitment domain-containing protein 4 (NLRC4) inflammasome is important for mounting an immune response against Gram-negative bacteria. NLRC4 is activated through NAIPs sensing type 3 secretion system (T3SS) proteins from Gram-negative bacteria, such as Salmonella Typhimurium. Mutations in NAIPs and NLRC4 are linked to autoinflammatory disorders in humans.
  • 1.6K
  • 16 May 2022
Topic Review
Effects of Particulate Matter on Inflammation and Thrombosis
Ambient air pollution has become a common problem worldwide. Exposure to pollutant particles causes many health conditions, having a particular impact on pulmonary and cardiovascular disease. Increased understanding of the pathological processes related to these conditions may facilitate the prevention of the adverse impact of air pollution on our physical health. 
  • 1.6K
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Peripheral Responses to Pain
Pain can be induced by tissue injuries, diseases and infections. The interactions between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and immune system are primary actions in pain sensitizations. In response to stimuli, nociceptors release various mediators from their terminals that potently activate and recruit immune cells, whereas infiltrated immune cells further promote sensitization of nociceptors and the transition from acute to chronic pain by producing cytokines, chemokines, lipid mediators and growth factors. Immune cells not only play roles in pain production but also contribute to PNS repair and pain resolution by secreting anti-inflammatory or analgesic effectors. 
  • 1.6K
  • 12 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Proteases and Mucus
Proteases are enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of peptide bonds within proteins, facilitating their cleavage; this hydrolysis can either activate, inactivate, or modulate the activity of the target protein.
  • 1.6K
  • 04 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Macrophages as Key Players in Intestinal Fibrogenesis
Intestinal fibrosis is a common complication in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) without specific treatment. Macrophages are the key actors in inflammatory responses and the wound healing process. By their exceptional ability to integrate diverse stimuli in their surrounding environment, macrophages display a multitude of phenotypes to underpin a broad spectrum of functions, from the initiation to the resolution of inflammation following injury. The hypothesis that distinct macrophage subtypes could be involved in fibrogenesis and wound healing is emerging and could open up new therapeutic perspectives in the treatment of intestinal fibrosis. 
  • 1.6K
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Toll-like Receptor 2 in Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Processes
While a certain level of inflammation is critical for humans to survive infection and injury, a prolonged inflammatory response can have fatal consequences. Pattern recognition Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key players in the initiation of an inflammatory process. TLR2 is one of the most studied pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and is known to form heterodimers with either TLR1, TLR4, TLR6, and TLR10, allowing it to recognize a wide range of pathogens.
  • 1.6K
  • 17 Aug 2023
Topic Review
NF-κB Signaling and Virus Infection
The nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) family are the master transcription factors that control cell proliferation, apoptosis, the expression of interferons and proinflammatory factors, and viral infection. During viral infection, host innate immune system senses viral products, such as viral nucleic acids, to activate innate defense pathways, including the NF-κB signaling axis, thereby inhibiting viral infection. In these NF-κB signaling pathways, diverse types of ubiquitination have been shown to participate in different steps of the signal cascades. Recent advances find that viruses also modulate the ubiquitination in NF-κB signaling pathways to activate viral gene expression or inhibit host NF-κB activation and inflammation, thereby facilitating viral infection. Understanding the role of ubiquitination in NF-κB signaling during viral infection will advance our knowledge of regulatory mechanisms of NF-κB signaling and pave the avenue for potential antiviral therapeutics. 
  • 1.6K
  • 07 Apr 2021
Topic Review
The Effects of Dietary on Tumor Metabolism
The remodeled cancer cell metabolism affects the tumor microenvironment and promotes an immunosuppressive state by changing the levels of macro- and micronutrients and by releasing hormones and cytokines that recruit immunosuppressive immune cells. Novel dietary interventions such as amino acid restriction and periodic fasting mimicking diets can prevent or dampen the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment by acting systemically on the release of hormones and growth factors, inhibiting the release of proinflammatory cytokines, and remodeling the tumor vasculature and extracellular matrix.
  • 1.6K
  • 10 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Types of Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Vaccine Delivery
Lipid-based vaccine delivery systems such as the conventional liposomes, virosomes, bilosomes, vesosomes, pH-fusogenic liposomes, transferosomes, immuno-liposomes, ethosomes, and lipid nanoparticles have gained a remarkable interest in vaccine delivery due to their ability to render antigens in vesicular structures, that in turn prevents its enzymatic degradation in vivo. The particulate form of lipid-based nanocarriers confers immunostimulatory potential, making them ideal antigen carriers.
  • 1.6K
  • 31 Mar 2023
Topic Review
CD146 (MCAM)
CD146 is a cell adhesion molecule expressed on all the vascular tree and belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily. Two isoforms of CD146 exists, a long isoform expressed at the cell junction and a short isoform located at the apical membrane of the cells. CD146 appears to be critical in regulating vascular permeability, cell-cell cohesion, leukocyte transmigration, and angiogenesis. As a consequence, CD146 is involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases including autoimmune diseases and cancers. Also, CD146 exists in a soluble form generated via the action of matrix metalloproteinases and referred to as soluble CD146 (sCD146). The concentration of sCD146 is quantifiable in the sera and cerebrospinal fluid of healthy individuals. Indeed, any variation in its physiological concentration is associated with certain diseases making it an excellent biomarker for diagnostic purposes.  
  • 1.6K
  • 27 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Dysregulated DNA Methylation
Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs, are known regulators of gene expression and genomic stability in cell growth, development, and differentiation. Since epigenetic mechanisms can regulate several immune system elements, epigenetic alterations have been found in several autoimmune diseases.
  • 1.6K
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Yeast β-Glucans as Fish Immunomodulators
Administration of immunostimulants in fish is a preventive method to combat infections. A wide variety of these biological molecules exist, among which one of the yeast wall compounds stands out for its different biological activities. The β-glucan that forms the structural part of yeast is capable of generating immune activity in fish by cell receptor recognition. The most frequently used β-glucans for the study of mechanisms of action are those of commercial origin, with doses recommended by the manufacturer. Nevertheless, their immune activity is inefficient in some fish species, and increasing the dose may show adverse effects, including immunosuppression. Conversely, experimental β-glucans from other yeast species show different activities, such as antibacterial, antioxidant, healing, and stress tolerance properties.
  • 1.6K
  • 23 Sep 2022
Topic Review
The Origin of Regulatory T Cells
In immunology, the discovery of regulatory T (Treg) cells was a major breakthrough. Treg cells play a key role in pregnancy maintenance, in the prevention of autoimmune responses, and in the control of all immune responses, including responses to self cells, cancer, infection, and a transplant.
  • 1.6K
  • 30 May 2022
Topic Review
APOE and NF-κB in Alzheimer’s Disease
Apolipoprotein E (APOE) has three different isoforms, with APOE4 carriers representing a major risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The APOE4 isoform is associated with many pathological mechanisms, such as increased neuroinflammation. The presence of APOE4 can increase neuroinflammation via overactivation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathway. The NF-kB pathway is a family of transcription factors involved with regulating over 400 genes involved with inflammation. AD is associated with sustained inflammation and an overactivation of the NF-kB pathway. Therefore, targeting the APOE4 isoform and suppressing the NF-kB pathway using anti-inflammatory compounds may result in the development of novel therapeutics for the prevention/treatment of AD.
  • 1.6K
  • 11 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Role of Macrophages in Tendon-Bone Healing
Tendon-bone healing comprises three stages: the inflammatory stage, the repair stage, and the remodeling stage. Macrophages appear in substantial populations in the early stages of tendon-bone healing and persist throughout the healing process, regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular matrix formation by secreting various inflammatory factors and growth factors. The importance of macrophages in tendon-bone healing has been progressively emphasized in recent years, and the processes by which they affect tendon-bone healing have gradually been uncovered.
  • 1.6K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Vitamin D in Immune System
Recent research has led to an explosion in our interest and our understanding of the role of vitamin D in regulation of immunity. At the molecular level, the hormonal form of vitamin D signals through the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR), a ligand-regulated transcription factor. The VDR and vitamin D metabolic enzymes are expressed throughout the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. The advent of genome-wide approaches to gene expression profiling led to identification of numerous VDR-regulated genes implicated in regulation of innate and adaptive immunity. The molecular data infer that vitamin D signaling should boost innate immunity against pathogens of bacterial or viral origin.
  • 1.5K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Mechanism of NETosis
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are net-like structures released from neutrophils. NETs predominantly contain cell-free deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) decorated with histones and neutrophil granule proteins. Numerous extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli can induce the formation of NETs such as pathogens, cytokines, immune complexes, microcrystals, antibodies, and other physiological stimuli. The mechanism of NETosis induction can either be ROS-dependent or independent based on the catalase producing activity of the pathogen. NADPH is the source of ROS production, which in turn depends on the upregulation of Ca2+ production in the cytoplasm. ROS-independent induction of NETosis is regulated through toll-like receptors (TLRs). Besides capturing and eliminating pathogens, NETs also aggravate the inflammatory response and thus act as a double-edged sword.
  • 1.5K
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
Crohn’s Disease
Crohn’s disease is increasing in incidence and prevalence in younger people and is of a particularly aggressive nature. One emerging treatment targets Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (MAP), an organism implicated in the causation of Crohn’s disease. This study reviewed a cohort of paediatric patients with active Crohn’s disease treated with Anti-Mycobacterial Antibiotic Therapy (AMAT). Sixteen paediatric patients, the majority of whom had failed conventional immunosuppressive therapy, were treated with AMAT. Endoscopic remission was scored using the Simple Endoscopic Score for Crohn’s Disease and clinical remission was assessed using the Weighted Paediatric Crohn’s Disease Activity Index (wPCDAI). Inflammatory blood markers were also routinely recorded. Patients were followed up clinically and endoscopically during treatment after an average of two months (range 1–6) and 17 months (range 2–49), respectively. A significant reduction in both scores assessing clinical improvement (p < 0.001) and mucosal healing (p < 0.0078) was observed at these timepoints; 47% of patients had achieved clinical remission and 63% endoscopic remission. Haemoglobin and serum inflammatory markers normalised for more than 50% of the cohort by six months of treatment. No adverse effects were reported throughout treatment.
  • 1.5K
  • 10 Dec 2020
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