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All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
What Options Are Available for Delivering Public Services, and How Do Local Governments Choose Between Them?
Local governments provide numerous services to their citizens. In doing so, they utilize two primary methods to deliver them: (1) producing them in-house with their own employees and equipment or (2) outsourcing them to external actors, which may take the form of other public agencies, for-profit firms, or non-profit organizations. In this entry, the authors review the logic of why local governments might choose one mechanism over another. The goal is to give readers a feel for the state of the academic literature in this regard. After reviewing basic concepts, such as the difference between the “provision” and “production” of services, the authors frame the discussion in terms of a variety of lenses used by scholars attempting to better understand the determinants of such decision-making. These include agency theory, transaction cost economics, and New Public Management. The authors also consider the role that management capacity plays in allowing cities to successfully deliver services to their constituents. Additionally, the authors offer a discussion regarding how local governments partner with non-profits in less formal ways than contracting to ensure their citizens have access to needed services. Finally, there is a review of the tradeoffs between efficiency and other values that should be accounted for when arranging service production.
  • 1.8K
  • 30 Jun 2025
Topic Review
Food Allergies
The increasing prevalence and severity of pediatric food allergies (FA) demands innovative preventive and therapeutic strategies. Emerging evidence suggests a pivotal role for the gut microbiome in modulating susceptibility to FA. Studies have demonstrated that alteration of gut microbiome could precede FA, and that particular microbial community structures early in life could influence also the disease course. The identification of gut microbiome features in pediatric FA patients is driving new prevention and treatment approaches.
  • 1.8K
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Beta2-Microglobulin
Beta2-microglobulin (B2M) is a key component of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules, which aid cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) immune response. B2M also plays an important role in innate defense and does not only function as an adjuvant for CTL response. 
  • 1.8K
  • 26 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Cyberstalking Victimization Model
Cyberstalking is a growing anti-social problem being transformed on a large scale and in various forms. Cyberstalking detection has become increasingly popular in recent years and has technically been investigated by many researchers. However, cyberstalking victimization, an essential part of cyberstalking, has empirically received less attention from the paper community.
  • 1.8K
  • 03 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Soundscape archaeology
Through an approach that aims to recognise and investigate the religious and public spaces of the past as “embodied spaces” and “sensory artefacts”, we can raise hypotheses on the sound experience in the ancient world and on the complex relationship between spaces and social interactions, making use of the potential provided by the application of 3D technology to virtual acoustics.  
  • 1.8K
  • 27 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Rice and Aquatic Plants
Aquatic ecosystems are contaminated with heavy metals by natural and anthropogenic sources. Among heavy metals, cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) cause significant damage to aquatic ecosystems and can invariably affect human health. These metals can enter the human body through food chains, and the presence of heavy metals in food can lead to numerous human health consequences. Heavy metals in aquatic plants can affect plant physicochemical functions, growth, and crop yield. 
  • 1.8K
  • 10 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Anti-Biofilm Treatments: Single and Combination Antibiotic Therapy
The public health challenge of antibacterial resistance has escalated considerably over recent decades. Of all potentially pathogenic species of bacteria those that form biofilm, complex surface-attached communities of bacteria held together by self-produced polysaccharide extracellular matrices, show heightened resistance to antibiotics. Foremost among these is Staphylococcus, in particular methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA). Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC) facilitates improved treatment of S. aureus biofilm infections. Although current approaches to combination therapy, typically using an antibiotic alongside an anti-biofilm agent, can achieve successful patient outcomes, complete removal of biofilm remains extremely difficult. Ongoing research aims to develop better means to address this important clinical concern.
  • 1.8K
  • 11 May 2022
Topic Review
The Modernity of Ancient Pigments
Naturally occurring and synthetic ancient pigments have a history of use spanning thousands of years. Curiously, some of their newly discovered properties make them excellent candidates for semiconductors, anticounterfeiting agents and so much more. 
  • 1.8K
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Social Media in Perceived Levels of National Security
The increase in the use of social media as a 21st century communication tool is in parallel increasing the threat to national security globally. Security is, according to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, a fundamental need of human life and the level to which this is experienced by members of a community is reflected in the confidence and security of the respective society. As governance bodies across the world seek to establish sustainable solutions to the provision of national security and disaster management for their communities, they are challenged in addressing the conundrum of managing the influence of social media.
  • 1.8K
  • 15 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Postcrossing
Postcrossing is an online project that allows its members to send and receive postcards from all over the world. The project's tag line is "send a postcard and receive a postcard back from a random person somewhere in the world!” Its members, also known as postcrossers, send postcards to other members and receive postcards back from other random postcrossers. Where the postcards come from is always a surprise. Postcrossing is the union of the words "postcard" and "crossing" and its origin "is loosely based on the Bookcrossing site". However, the "crossing" or exchange of postcards works in a different way. A member sends a postcard to another postcrosser and receives a postcard back from a random postcrosser. Exchanges between the same two members only occur once; although direct swaps between members happen, they are not part of the official happenings on the site. The project is completely free and anyone with an address can create an account. The postcards and postage fees to mail them are the responsibility of each user. By February 2018 Postcrossing had more than 719,000 members in 212 countries who had registered and exchanged over 45 million postcards that traveled over 229 billion kilometers. The highest concentration of Postcrossing members reside (in order) in Russia, Taiwan, China, the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland and the Czech Republic, each with over 20,000 members. Globally, most postcrossers reside in North America, Europe and East Asia. Of particular note, Postcrossing is popular in eastern European and former-Soviet states. As of January 2012, more than a quarter of the combined total of postcards were sent from Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.
  • 1.8K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Robotic Material Processing
The need to produce from soft materials or components in extra-large sizes has appeared, requiring special solutions that are affordable using industrial robots. Industrial robots are suitable for such tasks due to their flexibility, accuracy, and consistency in machining operations. However, robot implementation faces some limitations, such as a huge variety of materials and tools, low adaptability to environmental changes, flexibility issues, a complicated tool path preparation process, and challenges in quality control. Industrial robotics applications include cutting, milling, drilling, and grinding procedures on various materials, including metal, plastics, and wood. Advanced robotics technologies involve the latest advances in robotics, including integrating sophisticated control systems, sensors, data fusion techniques, and machine learning algorithms. These innovations enable robots to adapt better and interact with their environment, ultimately increasing their accuracy.
  • 1.8K
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Aquaponics as Sustainable Path to Food Sovereignty
Aquaponics emerges as a beacon of hope, showcasing how humanity can adapt, innovate, and thrive while preserving the delicate balance of our natural resources. Within aquaponic systems, a symbiotic cycle unfolds: fish waste serves as vital nutrients for plants, while these same plants act as natural filters, purifying the water destined to circulate back to the fish tanks. This harmonious relationship between aquatic life and vegetation fosters a closed-loop ecosystem, significantly curbing water wastage and elevating the system’s overall sustainability. This method not only produces high-quality organic vegetables and fruits but also sustainable protein sources, addressing the challenges of both food security and water conservation.
  • 1.8K
  • 29 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Blockchain Technology in Waste Management
Implementing blockchain technology in waste management is a novel approach to environmental sustainability and accountability challenges in our modern world. Blockchain, a technology that enables decentralized and immutable ledgers, is being re-imagined as a tool to revolutionize waste management. This innovative approach aims to improve waste management transparency, traceability, and efficiency, resulting in significant environmental and economic benefits.
  • 1.8K
  • 11 Jan 2024
Biography
Mohammad Heydari
Mohammad Heydari (Persian/Farsi: محمد حیدری; born 14 August 1992; Tehran, Iran) is an Associate Professor, Scientist and Author. He obtained a PhD and DSc. in Management Science and Engineering (MS&E) from the Nanjing University of Science and Technology (Apr. 2023). His doctoral dissertation was titled “Cognitive basis perceived corruption, and attitudes towards entrepreneurial inte
  • 1.8K
  • 17 Jun 2024
Topic Review
Children with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities
This entry aimed to undertake an extensive exploration of the extent, range, and nature of research activities regarding the effect and emerging evidence in the field of physical activity interventions on cognitive development among children and youth (0–17.99 years) with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD), and to help identify key gaps in research and determine precise research questions for future investigations. To carry out this scoping review, five electronic databases were searched. A total of 12,097 articles were retrieved via search efforts with an additional 93 articles identified from the identified review papers. Sixty articles were eligible for inclusion. The results of this scoping review revealed many positive key cognitive outcomes related to physicalactivity including, but not limited to: focus, attention, self-control, cognitive process, and alertness. No studies reported a negative association between physical activity and cognitive outcomes. Based on the findings from this scoping review, physical activity appears to have a favorable impact on the cognitive outcomes of children and youth with NDD. 
  • 1.8K
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
2LARTH® Micro-Immunotherapy Treatment
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) are two cytokines involved in the perpetuation of the chronic inflammation state characterizing rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Significant advances in the treatment of this pathology have been made over the past ten years, partially through the development of anti-TNF and anti-IL-1 therapies. However, major side effects still persist and new alternative therapies should be considered.
  • 1.8K
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Waste Management for Green Concrete Solutions
Reinforced concrete based on ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is one of the most commonly used materials in modern buildings. Due to the global growth of the building industry, concrete components have been partially or completely replaced with waste materials that can be used as binders or aggregates.
  • 1.8K
  • 20 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Uncoupling Proteins
The accumulation of oxidative damage to DNA and other biomolecules done by reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in the etiology of aging and age-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative disorders. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is especially sensitive to oxidative stress. Mitochondrial dysfunction resulting from the accumulation of mtDNA damage impairs normal cellular function and leads to a bioenergetic crisis that accelerates aging and associated diseases.
  • 1.8K
  • 09 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Microbial Technologies Applied Biofuel Production
The use of fossil energy sources has a negative impact on the economic and socio-political stability of specific regions and countries, causing environmental changes due to the emission of greenhouse gases. Moreover, the stocks of mineral energy are limited, causing the demand for new types and forms of energy. Biomass is a renewable energy source and represents an alternative to fossil energy sources. Microorganisms produce energy from the substrate and biomass, i.e., from substances in the microenvironment, to maintain their metabolism and life. However, specialized microorganisms also produce specific metabolites under almost abiotic circumstances that often do not have the immediate task of sustaining their own lives. Microorganisms can change the current paradigm, energy–environment, and open up countless opportunities for producing new energy sources, especially hydrogen, which is an ideal energy source for all systems (biological, physical, technological). Developing such energy production technologies can significantly change the already achieved critical level of greenhouse gases that significantly affect the climate.
  • 1.8K
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Relativizer
In linguistics, a relativizer (abbreviated REL) is a type of conjunction that introduces a relative clause. For example, in English, the conjunction that may be considered a relativizer in a sentence such as "I have one that you can use." Relativizers do not appear, at least overtly, in all languages; even in languages that do have overt or pronounced relativizers, they do not necessarily appear all of the time. For these reasons it has been suggested that in some cases, a "zero relativizer" may be present, meaning that a relativizer is implied in the grammar but is not actually realized in speech or writing. For example, the word that can be omitted in the above English example, producing "I have one you can use", using (on this analysis) a zero relativizer.
  • 1.8K
  • 09 Oct 2022
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