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Topic Review
Lignin as Fermentation Substrate
Lignin is the most abundant material, and it can be used to produce value-added products such as lignin-modifying enzymes (LMEs), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), microbial lipids, vanillin, muconic acid, and many others.
  • 2.0K
  • 28 May 2021
Topic Review
Multi-Omics Model for Cancer Genetics
In the coming age of omics technologies, next gen sequencing, proteomics, metabolomics, and other high throughput techniques will become the usual tools in biomedical cancer research. However, their integrative approach is not trivial due to the broad diversity of data types, dynamic ranges and sources of experimental and analytical errors characteristic of each omics.
  • 2.0K
  • 02 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Reuse of Excreta
Reuse of excreta refers to the safe, beneficial use of animal or human excreta, i.e. feces and urine. Such beneficial use involves mainly the nutrient, organic matter and energy contained in human excreta, rather than the water content (as is the case for wastewater reuse). Reuse of human excreta can involve using it as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in agriculture, gardening, aquaculture, or horticultural activities. Excreta can also be used as a fuel source or as a building material. Human excreta contains resources that can be recovered: plant-available nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium as well as micronutrients such as sulphur and organic matter. These resources which are contained in human excreta or in domestic wastewater (sewage) have traditionally been used in agriculture in many countries. They are still being used in agriculture to this day, but the practice is often carried out in an unregulated and unsafe manner in developing countries. The WHO Guidelines from 2006 have set up a framework how this reuse can be done safely by following a "multiple barrier approach". There are several "excreta-derived fertilizers" which vary in their properties and fertilizing characteristics: urine, dried feces, composted feces, faecal sludge (septage), sewage, sewage sludge, and animal manure. However, reuse of animal and human excreta can cause health risk and environmental problems because of pathogen, pharmaceutical residues and nitrate pollution. Reuse of human excreta is the final step of the sanitation chain which starts with collection of human excreta (by use of toilets) and continues with transport and treatment all the way to either disposal or reuse.
  • 2.0K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Indium-Mediated Allylation
Indium-Mediated Allylations (IMAs) are important chemical reactions for the formation of carbon–carbon bonds. This reaction has two steps: first, indium inserts itself between the carbon–halogen bond of an allyl halide, becoming the organoindium intermediate; second, this allyl indide intermediate reacts with an electrophile to synthesize one of a wide range of compounds, such as carbohydrates and antihelminthic drugs. This reaction is depicted in the scheme below: Although this reaction occurs in two steps, it is commonly done as a Barbier reaction where the indium, allyl halide, and electrophile are all mixed together in a one-pot process. Indium reacts more readily than other metals, such as Mg, Pb, Bi, or Zn and does not require a promoter or flammable organic solvent to drive the reaction. IMAs have advantages over other carbon bond forming reactions because of their ability to be carried out in water, which is cheap and environmentally friendly. Therefore, these reactions represent Green chemistry, providing a safer alternative to the very common Grignard reaction, performed with Mg. Reactions yield high stereo- and regio-selectivity with few by-products making it easy to purify the desired product.
  • 2.0K
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment
Anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) technology is emerging as an alternative to conventional anaerobic treatment due to its complete biomass retention, short start-up time, high effluent quality, and small footprint.
  • 2.0K
  • 30 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Homosociality
Homosociality refers to the tendency for individuals to form social bonds and affiliations primarily with others of the same gender. This phenomenon is characterized by the preference for same-gender relationships in social interaction, affiliation, and bonding, often resulting in the formation of gender-segregated social networks and communities. Homosociality plays a significant role in shaping interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, and socialization processes within various contexts, including workplaces, educational settings, and leisure activities.
  • 2.0K
  • 08 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Brown Hyena
The Brown Hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) is a fascinating and elusive species found primarily in southern Africa's arid and semi-arid regions. Distinguished by its shaggy brown coat and robust build, this carnivore occupies a unique ecological niche as a scavenger and occasional hunter, feeding on a diverse range of prey items, carrion, and plant matter. Despite its solitary and nocturnal nature, the Brown Hyena plays a crucial role in ecosystem dynamics and is of cultural significance to local communities across its range.
  • 2.0K
  • 28 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Inorganic Scintillation Crystals
Scintillators play a crucial role as radiation detection materials in various nuclear technologies and radiation applications, such as medical imaging, well logging, homeland security, marine and space exploration, and high energy physics (HEP).
  • 2.0K
  • 25 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Love and the Necessity of the Trinity
A reformulation of the argument from love is made by proposing a novel version of the argument that is situated within an objective, empirical, natural theological framework. Reformulating the argument in this specific manner will enable it to ward of an important objection that is often raised against it, and ultimately render this argument of great use in establishing the necessity of the Trinity. 
  • 2.0K
  • 18 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Multi-Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures
The entry presents the concept of Multi-Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures (MAFBS) and their usage in Microwave Photonic Sensor Systems (MPSS). The theory of MAFBS is the logical evolution of the theory of Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures (AFBS), which implement a microwave-photonic tecnique for their interrogation. The MAFBS is a special type of Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG), the reflection spectrum of which has three (or more) narrow notches. The frequencies of narrow notches are located in infrared range of electromagnetic spectrum, while differences between them – in microwave frequency range. All cross-differences between optical frequencies of single MAFBS are called address frequencies set. When the additive optical response from a single MAFBS, passing through optical filter with oblique frequency response, is received by a photodetector, the complex electrical signal, which consists of all cross-frequency beatings of all optical frequencies, is taken at its output. This complex electrical signal at the photodetector’s output contains enough information to determine the central frequency shift of the MAFBS.
  • 2.0K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Interactions of SARS-CoV-2 & Variants with Cellular Components
Given the global scale of the COVID-19 pandemic and the health emergency it has caused, it is crucial to understand the impact of SARS-CoV-2 and its mutations. Here, we comprehensively review SARS-CoV-2 interactions with host cells, describe SARS-CoV-2 variants, assess impact of their protein mutations and enumerate databases with SARS-CoV-2 host-pathogen interaction data. 
  • 2.0K
  • 24 Nov 2021
Biography
William Friese-Greene
William Friese-Greene (born William Edward Green, 7 September 1855 – 5 May 1921) was a prolific English inventor and professional photographer. He is principally known as a pioneer in the field of motion pictures, creating a series of cameras in the period 1888–1891 with which he shot moving pictures in London. He went on to patent an early two-colour filming process in 1905. His inventions
  • 2.0K
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Membrane Bioreactor Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
The advancement in water treatment technology has revolutionized the progress of membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology in the modern era. The large space requirement, low efficiency, and high cost of the traditional activated sludge process have given the necessary space for the MBR system to come into action. 
  • 2.0K
  • 23 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Electrolysis of Industrial Wastewater
Water electrolysis is a powerful technology for producing high-purity H2, with negligible emission of greenhouse gases and compatibility with renewable energy sources. Additionally, the electrolysis of organic compounds, such as lignin, is a promising method for localised H2 production, as it requires lower cell voltages than conventional water electrolysis. Industrial wastewater can be employed in those organic electrolysis systems due to their high organic content, decreasing industrial pollution through wastewater disposal. Electrocoagulation, indirect electrochemical oxidation, anodic oxidation, and electro-Fenton are effective electrochemical methods for treating industrial wastewater.
  • 2.0K
  • 27 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Aortic Dissection
Acute aortic syndromes (AAS) represent a spectrum of interrelated disorders characterized by the disruption of the aortic integrity, and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. These conditions include aortic dissection (AD), accounting for the majority of AAS (80%), intramural hematoma (IMH, ~15%), and penetrating aortic ulcer (PAU, ~5%).
  • 2.0K
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Social Media Ethics: Balancing Transparency, AI Marketing, and Misinformation
Social media refers to digital platforms that enable users to create, share, and engage with content within virtual communities. Platforms like Facebook, X, Instagram, and TikTok have democratized content creation, allowing individuals to share ideas, opinions, and experiences with global audiences. Social media has revolutionized the way information is shared and consumed, offering unprecedented opportunities for learning, engagement, and democratic participation. However, this accessibility comes with significant ethical challenges, particularly centered around the paradox of freedom versus harm—the tension between upholding freedom of expression and mitigating the harms of misinformation, privacy violations, and AI-driven bias. This entry explores the dilemmas and opportunities associated with social media, examining how these platforms shape public discourse, influence consumer behavior, and challenge traditional notions of truth and accountability. It aims to provide policymakers, educators, and platform designers with actionable insights to foster ethical social media environments.
  • 2.0K
  • 26 Jun 2025
Topic Review
Predicting Students’ Performance by ML
Predicting students' performance is one of the most important topics for learning contexts such as schools and universities, since it helps to design effective mechanisms that improve academic results and avoid dropout, among other things. These are benefited by the automation of many processes involved in usual students' activities which handle massive volumes of data collected from software tools for technology-enhanced learning. Thus, analyzing and processing these data carefully can give us useful information about the students' knowledge and the relationship between them and the academic tasks. This information is the source that feeds promising algorithms and methods able to predict students' performance.
  • 2.0K
  • 02 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Mangrove Streptomycetes with Anticancer Activity
Worldwide cancer incidence and mortality have always been a concern to the community. The cancer mortality rate has generally declined over the years; however, there is still an increased mortality rate in poorer countries that receives considerable attention from healthcare professionals. This suggested the importance of the prompt detection, effective treatment, and prevention strategies. The genus Streptomyces has been documented as a prolific producer of biologically active secondary metabolites. Streptomycetes from mangrove environments attract researchers’ attention due to their ability to synthesize diverse, interesting bioactive metabolites. The present entry highlights research on mangrove-derived streptomycetes and the production of anticancer-related compounds from these microorganisms. Research studies conducted between 2008 and 2019, specifically mentioning the isolation of streptomycetes from mangrove areas and described the successful purification of compound(s) or generation of crude extracts with cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell lines, were compiled in this entry. It is anticipated that there will be an increase in prospects for mangrove-derived streptomycetes as one of the natural resources for the isolation of chemotherapeutic agents. 
  • 2.0K
  • 09 Dec 2020
Topic Review
The Cardiac Sodium Channel
The upstroke phase of the cardiac action potential (AP) is mainly coordinated by cardiac sodium channels, which are immediately activated and generate a fast Na+ inward current, through the membrane, after membrane depolarization. In atrial and ventricular myocytes, the sodium current (INa) is principally governed by cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel 1.5 (Nav1.5) with a tinny contribution of NaV1.8. The human Nav1.5 channel is composed of a pore-forming α-subunit (227-kDa) and one or more auxiliary β-subunit (30-kDa).
  • 2.0K
  • 10 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Laboratory Diagnosis of Porphyria
Porphyrias are a group of diseases that are clinically and genetically heterogeneous and originate mostly from inherited dysfunctions of specific enzymes involved in heme biosynthesis.
  • 2.0K
  • 28 Sep 2021
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