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Topic Review
Cofilin Signaling
Three ADF/cofilin family members are expressed in mammals: ADF, cofilin-1, and cofilin-2. The first member ADF (also known as destrin), encoded by the gene DSTN in humans, was initially identified in the chick brain. Cofilin was discovered as an actin-interacting protein in the porcine brain. Later, Ono et al. identified two mammalian variants of cofilin, non-muscle type (also known as cofilin-1 and n-cofilin) and muscle type (also known as cofilin-2 and m-cofilin). In humans, cofilin-1 and cofilin-2 are encoded by the genes CFL1 and CFL2, respectively. Different isoforms of ADF/cofilin have qualitatively similar but quantitatively different effects on actin dynamics. To be noted, both ADF and cofilin show cooperative binding with actin filaments. Interestingly, cofilin-1 comprises almost 90% of the total ADF/cofilin family in CNS. Cofilin can bind to both G-actin and F-actin, exhibiting stronger affinities for the ADP-bound actins than the ATP- or ADP-Pi-bound forms. Cofilin binding to F-actin induces actin subunit rotation, enhances Pi release along the filament, and promotes filament severing in a concentration-dependent manner.
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Preventing and Treating Cancer by Green Tea Catechins
Green tea’s (Camellia sinensis) anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects are well-known. Catechins are the most effective antioxidants among the physiologically active compounds found in Camellia sinesis. Catechins have the ability to effectively neutralize reactive oxygen species. The catechin derivatives of green tea include epicatechin (EC), epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG has the greatest anti-inflammatory and anticancer potential. Notably, catechins in green tea have been explored for their ability to prevent a variety of cancers.
  • 1.2K
  • 21 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Astrocytes and α-Syn in Parkinson’s Disease
The α-syn protein is a 140-amino-acid protein that comprises an N-terminal region that assumes an α-helical secondary structure upon membrane binding, a non-amyloid-component hydrophobic domain that can adopt a β-sheet conformation, promoting protein aggregation in its monomeric form, and a negatively charged C-terminal domain. Astrocytes greatly contribute to neuronal survival through numerous mechanisms, such as the secretion of neurotrophins and antioxidants, the clearance of α-synuclein, glutamate metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and the transfer of healthy mitochondria to neurons.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Ribosomal Proteins
Mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes translate 13 proteins encoded by mitochondrial genes, all of which play roles in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. After a long period of reconstruction, mitochondrial ribosomes are the most protein-rich ribosomes. Mitochondrial ribosomal proteins (MRPs) are encoded by nuclear genes, synthesized in the cytoplasm and then, transported to the mitochondria to be assembled into mitochondrial ribosomes. MRPs not only play a role in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Moreover, they participate in the regulation of cell state as apoptosis inducing factors. Abnormal expressions of MRPs will lead to mitochondrial metabolism disorder, cell dysfunction, etc. Many researches have demonstrated the abnormal expression of MRPs in various tumors.
  • 1.2K
  • 16 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Plant Xyloglucan:Xyloglucosyl Transferases
Plant xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferases, known as xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XETs) are the key players that underlie plant cell wall dynamics and mechanics. These fundamental roles are central for the assembly and modifications of cell walls during embryogenesis, vegetative and reproductive growth, and adaptations to living environments under biotic and abiotic (environmental) stresses. Xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferases or xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XET), classified under EC 2.4.1.207, transfer the glycosyl groups from one glycoside to another. These enzymes were discovered in 1992 independently in bean epicotyls, nasturtium seeds, and pea, tomato and other plant extracts, and since their discovery, significant knowledge has been accumulated on their mode of action.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Feb 2022
Topic Review
C-type Lectin CD209L/L-SIGN and CD209/DC-SIGN
COVID-19 pandemic continues to pose a serious threat to global public health with overwhelming worldwide socio-economic disruption. SARS-CoV-2, the viral agent of COVID-19, uses its surface glycoprotein Spike (S) for host cell attachment and entry. The emerging picture of pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates that S protein, in addition, to ACE2, interacts with the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) of C-type lectin receptors, CD209L and CD209. Recognition of CD209L and CD209 which are widely expressed in SARS-CoV-2 target organs can facilitate entry and transmission leading to dysregulation of the host immune response and other major organs including, cardiovascular system. Establishing a comprehensive map of the SARS-CoV-2 interaction with CD209 family proteins, and their roles in transmission and pathogenesis can provide new insights into host-pathogen interaction with implications in therapies and vaccine development. 
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Genetic Effects on Plant Immunity
An immune system is a protective mechanism that shields plants from environmental stresses. This primary function is to maintain optimal circumstances for the growth and development of plant tissues while avoiding harm from biotic and abiotic stress factors. Plants subjected to various stressors initiate stress signaling cascades that affect multiple gene expressions and induce adaptation. These signaling pathways are coordinated by transcription factors, non-coding RNAs, RNA-binding proteins, and protein-protein interaction networks.
  • 1.2K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
GSK-3
The serine/threonine kinase, GSK-3, is a promising drug discovery target for treating multiple pathological disorders. Most GSK-3 inhibitors that were developed function as ATP competitive inhibitors, with typical limitations in specificity, safety and drug-induced resistance. In contrast, substrate competitive inhibitors (SCIs), are considered highly selective, and more suitable for clinical practice. The development of SCIs has been largely neglected in the past because the ambiguous, undefined nature of the substrate-binding site makes them difficult to design. In this study, we used our previously described structural models of GSK-3 bound to SCI peptides, to design a pharmacophore model and to virtually screen the “drug-like” Zinc database (~6.3 million compounds). We identified leading hits that interact with critical binding elements in the GSK-3 substrate binding site and are chemically distinct from known GSK-3 inhibitors. Accordingly, novel GSK-3 SCI compounds were designed and synthesized with IC50 values of~1–4 μM. Biological activity of the SCI compound was confirmed in cells and in primary neurons that showed increased β-catenin levels and reduced tau phosphorylation in response to compound treatment. We have generated a new type of small molecule GSK-3 inhibitors and propose to use this strategy to further develop SCIs for other protein kinases.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Chitosans and Nanochitosans
Chitosan displays a dual function, acting as both an active ingredient and/or carrier for pharmaceutical bioactive molecules and metal ions. Its hydroxyl- and amino-reactive groups and acetylation degree can be used to adjust this biopolymer’s physicochemical and pharmacological properties in different forms, including scaffolds, nanoparticles, fibers, sponges, films, and hydrogels, among others. 
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Enhancer Regulation of WNT3A
Upon traumatic brain injury, epigenome reprograms allowing gene expressions for injury response and regeneration. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing of histone marks, we identify a novel enhancer region for induced WNT3A transcription during regeneration of injured cortical neurons. An increased mono-methylation of histone H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me1) modification and a topological transformation of this enhancer and with promoter of WNT3A gene orchestrate the transcription of WNT3A gene during neuronal regeneration.
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Cetuximab
Cetuximab is a human/mouse chimeric monoclonal antibody targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), first approved in the world.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Neuroinflammation Receptors in Alzheimer’s Disease
Fibrillar aggregates and soluble oligomers of both Amyloid-β peptides (Aβs) and hyperphosphorylated Tau proteins (p-Tau-es), as well as a chronic neuroinflammation are the main drivers causing progressive neuronal losses and dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms are still much disputed. Several endogenous neurotoxic ligands, including Aβs, and/or p-Tau-es activate innate immunity-related danger-sensing/pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) thereby advancing AD's neuroinflammation and progression. The major PRR families involved include scavenger, Toll-like, NOD-like, AIM2-like, RIG-like, and CLEC-2 receptors, plus the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). This quite intricate picture stresses the need to identify the pathogenetically topmost Aβ-activated PRR, whose signaling would trigger AD's three main drivers and their intra-brain spread. In theory, the candidate might belong to any PRR family. However, results of preclinical studies using in vitro nontumorigenic human cortical neurons and astrocytes and in vivo AD-model animals have started converging on the CaSR as the pathogenetically upmost PRR candidate. In fact, the CaSR binds both Ca2+ and Aβs and promotes the spread of both  Ca2+ dyshomeostasis and AD's three main drivers, causing a progressive neurons' death. Since CaSR's negative allosteric modulators block all these effects, CaSR's candidacy for topmost pathogenetic PRR has assumed a growing therapeutic potential worth clinical testing.
  • 1.2K
  • 10 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Receptor
Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates cell growth and proliferation. Upregulation of the IGF1R pathway constitutes a common paradigm shared with other receptor tyrosine kinases such as EGFR, HER2, and MET in different cancer types, including colon cancer. The main IGF1R signaling pathways are PI3K-AKT and MAPK-MEK. However, different processes, such as post-translational modification (SUMOylation), epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and microenvironment complexity, can also contribute to intrinsic and acquired resistance.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Oct 2021
Topic Review
FURIN in insulin receptor processing
The insulin receptor (IR) is critically involved in maintaining glucose homeostasis. It undergoes proteolytic cleavage by proprotein convertases, which is an essential step for its activation. The importance of the insulin receptor in the liver is well established, but its role in pancreatic β cells is still controversial.
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Defining Blood Plasma and Serum Metabolome by GC-MS
Metabolomics uses advanced analytical chemistry methods to analyze metabolites in biological samples. The most intensively studied samples are blood and its liquid components: plasma and serum. Armed with advanced equipment and progressive software solutions, the scientific community has shown that small molecules’ roles in living systems are not limited to traditional “building blocks” or “just fuel” for cellular energy. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Tyrosine Hydroxylase Phosphorylation
Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate-limiting enzyme of dopamine biosynthesis. The phosphorylation of TH is strictly regulated.
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Antibody-Drug Conjugate Targeting c-Kit
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounts for 15–25% of all lung cancers. It exhibits a rapid doubling time and a high degree of invasiveness. Additionally, overexpression of c-Kit occurs in 70% of SCLC patients.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Applications of Two-Photon Microscopy
Fluorescence microscopy has represented a crucial technique to explore the cellular and molecular mechanisms in the field of biomedicine. However, the conventional one-photon microscopy exhibits many limitations when living samples are imaged. The new technologies, including two-photon microscopy (2PM), have considerably improved the in vivo study of pathophysiological processes, allowing the investigators to overcome the limits displayed by previous techniques. 2PM enables the real-time intravital imaging of the biological functions in different organs at cellular and subcellular resolution thanks to its improved laser penetration and less phototoxicity. The development of more sensitive detectors and long-wavelength fluorescent dyes as well as the implementation of semi-automatic software for data analysis allowed to gain insights in essential physiological functions, expanding the frontiers of cellular and molecular imaging. The future applications of 2PM are promising to push the intravital microscopy beyond the existing limits. 
  • 1.2K
  • 17 May 2022
Topic Review
Intrapancreatic Parenchymal Cell Transplantation
In vivo inoculation of cells such as cancer cells and induced pluripotent stem (iPS)/embryonic stem (ES) cells into immunocompromised mice, such as nude mice, has been considered a powerful technique for evaluating these cells' potential to form solid tumors made of proliferating cells or teratomas made of various types of differentiated cells originating from three germ cell layers. Two major approaches, i.e., subcutaneous grafting and grafting under the kidney capsule, have been widely utilized for this purpose. Unfortunately, large numbers of tumor cells are required for successful inoculation, and often, failure of tumorigenesis is encountered. This is attributable to dispersion/escaping of grafted cells from the inoculation site. To avoid such cell dispersion/escaping, choosing an appropriate inoculation site from where grafted cells cannot easily disperse is important. Intrapancreatic parenchymal injection of tumorigenic cells is apparently very effective for this purpose; the grafted cells seldom escape from the injection site and are found to form solid tumors even from small numbers (~15 × 103 cells) of cells. The procedure is very simple—it requires only surgical exposure of the pancreas over the dorsal skin under anesthesia and subsequent injection of cells toward the pancreatic parenchyma under dissecting microscope-based observation using a mouthpiece-controlled glass micropipette. The inoculated cells generally grow as solid tumors 1–1.5 months after surgery. This novel technique is known as “intrapancreatic parenchymal cell transplantation (IPPCT).” Apart from the abovementioned benefit, IPPCT may be useful for those wanting to obtain large amounts of tumorigenic cells for biochemical or molecular biological analyses or for those rescuing specific cells that are difficult to cultivate in vitro.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Agaricales Mushroom Lignin Peroxidase
Lignin biodegradation has been extensively studied in white-rot fungi, which largely belong to order Polyporales. Among the enzymes that wood-rotting polypores secrete, lignin peroxidases (LiPs) have been labeled as the most efficient. A recent thorough study of 52 Agaricomycetes genomes has revealed the high presence of putative ligninolytic peroxidases in fungi belonging to the order Agaricales. These include the first LiP outside the order Polyporales, identified in the genome of the mushroom Agrocybe pediades (ApeLiP) as a case of parallel and convergent evolution of LiPs between Agaricales and Polyporales.
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Sep 2021
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