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Topic Review
Plant Xyloglucan:Xyloglucosyl Transferases
Plant xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferases, known as xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XETs) are the key players that underlie plant cell wall dynamics and mechanics. These fundamental roles are central for the assembly and modifications of cell walls during embryogenesis, vegetative and reproductive growth, and adaptations to living environments under biotic and abiotic (environmental) stresses. Xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferases or xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XET), classified under EC 2.4.1.207, transfer the glycosyl groups from one glycoside to another. These enzymes were discovered in 1992 independently in bean epicotyls, nasturtium seeds, and pea, tomato and other plant extracts, and since their discovery, significant knowledge has been accumulated on their mode of action.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Preventing and Treating Cancer by Green Tea Catechins
Green tea’s (Camellia sinensis) anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects are well-known. Catechins are the most effective antioxidants among the physiologically active compounds found in Camellia sinesis. Catechins have the ability to effectively neutralize reactive oxygen species. The catechin derivatives of green tea include epicatechin (EC), epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG has the greatest anti-inflammatory and anticancer potential. Notably, catechins in green tea have been explored for their ability to prevent a variety of cancers.
  • 1.2K
  • 21 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Astrocytes and α-Syn in Parkinson’s Disease
The α-syn protein is a 140-amino-acid protein that comprises an N-terminal region that assumes an α-helical secondary structure upon membrane binding, a non-amyloid-component hydrophobic domain that can adopt a β-sheet conformation, promoting protein aggregation in its monomeric form, and a negatively charged C-terminal domain. Astrocytes greatly contribute to neuronal survival through numerous mechanisms, such as the secretion of neurotrophins and antioxidants, the clearance of α-synuclein, glutamate metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and the transfer of healthy mitochondria to neurons.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Mar 2024
Topic Review
HDL-Mediated Cholesterol Trafficking in the Central Nervous System
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) and abnormally hyperphosphorylated intracellular tau filaments in neurons. Cholesterol metabolism has been extensively implicated in the pathogenesis of AD through biological, epidemiological, and genetic studies, with the APOE gene being the most reproducible genetic risk factor for the development of AD. The apolipoprotein E (ApoE) 4  genotype seems to be a disruptive element in high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-like-mediated cholesterol transport through the brain. 
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Insights into Postoperative Cognitive Impairment Induced by Anesthesia
Cognitive impairment after surgery is a common problem, affects mainly the elderly, and can be divided into postoperative delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Both phenomena are accompanied by neuroinflammation; however, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying cognitive impairment after anesthesia are not yet fully understood. Anesthesiological drugs can have a longer-term influence on protein transcription, thus, epigenetics is a possible mechanism that impacts on cognitive function. Epigenetic mechanisms may be responsible for long-lasting effects and may implicate novel therapeutic approaches.
  • 1.2K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Central Nervous System
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) form a heterogeneous group of membrane-enclosed structures secreted by all cell types. EVs export encapsulated materials composed of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, making them a key mediator in cell–cell communication. In the context of the neurovascular unit (NVU), a tightly interacting multicellular brain complex, EVs play a role in intercellular communication and in maintaining NVU functionality. In addition, NVU-derived EVs can also impact peripheral tissues by crossing the blood–brain barrier (BBB) to reach the blood stream. As such, EVs have been shown to be involved in the physiopathology of numerous neurological diseases.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Genetic Effects on Plant Immunity
An immune system is a protective mechanism that shields plants from environmental stresses. This primary function is to maintain optimal circumstances for the growth and development of plant tissues while avoiding harm from biotic and abiotic stress factors. Plants subjected to various stressors initiate stress signaling cascades that affect multiple gene expressions and induce adaptation. These signaling pathways are coordinated by transcription factors, non-coding RNAs, RNA-binding proteins, and protein-protein interaction networks.
  • 1.2K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Chitosans and Nanochitosans
Chitosan displays a dual function, acting as both an active ingredient and/or carrier for pharmaceutical bioactive molecules and metal ions. Its hydroxyl- and amino-reactive groups and acetylation degree can be used to adjust this biopolymer’s physicochemical and pharmacological properties in different forms, including scaffolds, nanoparticles, fibers, sponges, films, and hydrogels, among others. 
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Jul 2022
Topic Review
C-type Lectin CD209L/L-SIGN and CD209/DC-SIGN
COVID-19 pandemic continues to pose a serious threat to global public health with overwhelming worldwide socio-economic disruption. SARS-CoV-2, the viral agent of COVID-19, uses its surface glycoprotein Spike (S) for host cell attachment and entry. The emerging picture of pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates that S protein, in addition, to ACE2, interacts with the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) of C-type lectin receptors, CD209L and CD209. Recognition of CD209L and CD209 which are widely expressed in SARS-CoV-2 target organs can facilitate entry and transmission leading to dysregulation of the host immune response and other major organs including, cardiovascular system. Establishing a comprehensive map of the SARS-CoV-2 interaction with CD209 family proteins, and their roles in transmission and pathogenesis can provide new insights into host-pathogen interaction with implications in therapies and vaccine development. 
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Cetuximab
Cetuximab is a human/mouse chimeric monoclonal antibody targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), first approved in the world.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
GSK-3
The serine/threonine kinase, GSK-3, is a promising drug discovery target for treating multiple pathological disorders. Most GSK-3 inhibitors that were developed function as ATP competitive inhibitors, with typical limitations in specificity, safety and drug-induced resistance. In contrast, substrate competitive inhibitors (SCIs), are considered highly selective, and more suitable for clinical practice. The development of SCIs has been largely neglected in the past because the ambiguous, undefined nature of the substrate-binding site makes them difficult to design. In this study, we used our previously described structural models of GSK-3 bound to SCI peptides, to design a pharmacophore model and to virtually screen the “drug-like” Zinc database (~6.3 million compounds). We identified leading hits that interact with critical binding elements in the GSK-3 substrate binding site and are chemically distinct from known GSK-3 inhibitors. Accordingly, novel GSK-3 SCI compounds were designed and synthesized with IC50 values of~1–4 μM. Biological activity of the SCI compound was confirmed in cells and in primary neurons that showed increased β-catenin levels and reduced tau phosphorylation in response to compound treatment. We have generated a new type of small molecule GSK-3 inhibitors and propose to use this strategy to further develop SCIs for other protein kinases.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Microbial Community Analysis
The microbial diversity in anaerobic digestion (AD) is important because it affects process robustness. High-throughput sequencing offers high-resolution data regarding the microbial diversity and robustness of biological systems including AD; however, to understand the dynamics of microbial processes, knowing the microbial diversity is not adequate alone. Advanced meta-omic techniques have been established to determine the activity and interactions among organisms in biological processes like AD. Results of these methods can be used to identify biomarkers for AD states. This can aid a better understanding of system dynamics and be applied to producing comprehensive models for AD. 
  • 1.2K
  • 08 Jun 2021
Topic Review
FURIN in insulin receptor processing
The insulin receptor (IR) is critically involved in maintaining glucose homeostasis. It undergoes proteolytic cleavage by proprotein convertases, which is an essential step for its activation. The importance of the insulin receptor in the liver is well established, but its role in pancreatic β cells is still controversial.
  • 1.2K
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Constituents and Identification of Super-Enhancers
Super-enhancers (SEs) are clusters of neighboring enhancers spanning over 10 kb with high-fold enhancer activity that drive cell-type specific gene expression. 3D genome organization enables SEs to interact with specific gene promoters and orchestrates their activity as evidenced by the high frequency of chromatin interactions at the genomic loci containing SEs. SEs contain many TF binding sites, and are heavily loaded with enhancer-associated chromatin features, such as master TFs (e.g., Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, and Klf4 in embryonic stem cells), RNA Pol II, MED1, and chromatin modifiers (p300 and BRD4). The recruited factors alter the chromatin structure, leading to interactions with promoters and RNA Pol II, a process mediated by enhancer–promoter looping. Phase separation may facilitate the assembly and function of SEs.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Neuroinflammation Receptors in Alzheimer’s Disease
Fibrillar aggregates and soluble oligomers of both Amyloid-β peptides (Aβs) and hyperphosphorylated Tau proteins (p-Tau-es), as well as a chronic neuroinflammation are the main drivers causing progressive neuronal losses and dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms are still much disputed. Several endogenous neurotoxic ligands, including Aβs, and/or p-Tau-es activate innate immunity-related danger-sensing/pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) thereby advancing AD's neuroinflammation and progression. The major PRR families involved include scavenger, Toll-like, NOD-like, AIM2-like, RIG-like, and CLEC-2 receptors, plus the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). This quite intricate picture stresses the need to identify the pathogenetically topmost Aβ-activated PRR, whose signaling would trigger AD's three main drivers and their intra-brain spread. In theory, the candidate might belong to any PRR family. However, results of preclinical studies using in vitro nontumorigenic human cortical neurons and astrocytes and in vivo AD-model animals have started converging on the CaSR as the pathogenetically upmost PRR candidate. In fact, the CaSR binds both Ca2+ and Aβs and promotes the spread of both  Ca2+ dyshomeostasis and AD's three main drivers, causing a progressive neurons' death. Since CaSR's negative allosteric modulators block all these effects, CaSR's candidacy for topmost pathogenetic PRR has assumed a growing therapeutic potential worth clinical testing.
  • 1.2K
  • 10 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Nucleases and Co-Factors in DNA Replication Stress Responses
DNA replication stress is a constant threat that cells must manage to proliferate and maintain genome integrity. DNA replication stress responses, a subset of the broader DNA damage response (DDR), operate when the DNA replication machinery (replisome) is blocked or replication forks collapse during S phase. There are many sources of replication stress, such as DNA lesions caused by endogenous and exogenous agents including commonly used cancer therapeutics, and difficult-to-replicate DNA sequences comprising fragile sites, G-quadraplex DNA, hairpins at trinucleotide repeats, and telomeres. Replication stress is also a consequence of conflicts between opposing transcription and replication, and oncogenic stress which dysregulates replication origin firing and fork progression. Cells initially respond to replication stress by protecting blocked replisomes, but if the offending problem (e.g., DNA damage) is not bypassed or resolved in a timely manner, forks may be cleaved by nucleases, inducing a DNA double-strand break (DSB) and providing a means to accurately restart stalled forks via homologous recombination. However, DSBs pose their own risks to genome stability if left unrepaired or misrepaired.  
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Defining Blood Plasma and Serum Metabolome by GC-MS
Metabolomics uses advanced analytical chemistry methods to analyze metabolites in biological samples. The most intensively studied samples are blood and its liquid components: plasma and serum. Armed with advanced equipment and progressive software solutions, the scientific community has shown that small molecules’ roles in living systems are not limited to traditional “building blocks” or “just fuel” for cellular energy. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Extended Myc Network
Among the first discovered and most prominent cellular oncogenes is MYC, which encodes a bHLH-ZIP transcription factor (Myc) that both activates and suppresses numerous genes involved in proliferation, energy production, metabolism and translation. Myc belongs to a small group of bHLH-ZIP transcriptional regulators (the Myc Network) that includes its obligate heterodimerization partner Max and six “Mxd proteins” (Mxd1–4, Mnt and Mga), each of which heterodimerizes with Max and largely opposes Myc’s functions.
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Intrapancreatic Parenchymal Cell Transplantation
In vivo inoculation of cells such as cancer cells and induced pluripotent stem (iPS)/embryonic stem (ES) cells into immunocompromised mice, such as nude mice, has been considered a powerful technique for evaluating these cells' potential to form solid tumors made of proliferating cells or teratomas made of various types of differentiated cells originating from three germ cell layers. Two major approaches, i.e., subcutaneous grafting and grafting under the kidney capsule, have been widely utilized for this purpose. Unfortunately, large numbers of tumor cells are required for successful inoculation, and often, failure of tumorigenesis is encountered. This is attributable to dispersion/escaping of grafted cells from the inoculation site. To avoid such cell dispersion/escaping, choosing an appropriate inoculation site from where grafted cells cannot easily disperse is important. Intrapancreatic parenchymal injection of tumorigenic cells is apparently very effective for this purpose; the grafted cells seldom escape from the injection site and are found to form solid tumors even from small numbers (~15 × 103 cells) of cells. The procedure is very simple—it requires only surgical exposure of the pancreas over the dorsal skin under anesthesia and subsequent injection of cells toward the pancreatic parenchyma under dissecting microscope-based observation using a mouthpiece-controlled glass micropipette. The inoculated cells generally grow as solid tumors 1–1.5 months after surgery. This novel technique is known as “intrapancreatic parenchymal cell transplantation (IPPCT).” Apart from the abovementioned benefit, IPPCT may be useful for those wanting to obtain large amounts of tumorigenic cells for biochemical or molecular biological analyses or for those rescuing specific cells that are difficult to cultivate in vitro.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Enhancer Regulation of WNT3A
Upon traumatic brain injury, epigenome reprograms allowing gene expressions for injury response and regeneration. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing of histone marks, we identify a novel enhancer region for induced WNT3A transcription during regeneration of injured cortical neurons. An increased mono-methylation of histone H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me1) modification and a topological transformation of this enhancer and with promoter of WNT3A gene orchestrate the transcription of WNT3A gene during neuronal regeneration.
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Nov 2020
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