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Topic Review
Countermeasures of P. xanthii for Subverting Chitin Signaling
Fungal pathogens are significant plant-destroying microorganisms that present an increasing threat to the world’s crop production. Chitin is a crucial component of fungal cell walls and a conserved MAMP (microbe-associated molecular pattern) that can be recognized by specific plant receptors, activating chitin-triggered immunity. The molecular mechanisms underlying the perception of chitin by specific receptors are well known in plants such as rice and Arabidopsis thaliana and are believed to function similarly in many other plants. To become a plant pathogen, fungi have to suppress the activation of chitin-triggered immunity. Therefore, fungal pathogens have evolved various strategies, such as prevention of chitin digestion or interference with plant chitin receptors or chitin signaling, which involve the secretion of fungal proteins in most cases. Since chitin immunity is a very effective defensive response, these fungal mechanisms are believed to work in close coordination. 
  • 646
  • 27 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Wheat Resistance to Leaf Rust
Wheat leaf rust, caused by the obligate biotrophic fungus Puccinia triticina Eriks. (Pt), is one of the most common wheat foliar diseases that continuously threatens global wheat production. Currently, the approaches used to mitigate pathogen infestation include the application of fungicides and the deployment of resistance genes or cultivars. However, the continuous deployment of selected resistant varieties causes host selection pressures that drive Pt evolution and promote the incessant emergence of new virulent races, resulting in the demise of wheat-resistant cultivars after several years of planting. Intriguingly, diploid wheat accessions were found to confer haustorium formation-based resistance to leaf rust, which involves prehaustorial and posthaustorial resistance mechanisms. 
  • 646
  • 18 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench) Hemagglutinin
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench) is used in traditional and conventional medicine. However, there is lack of data on the biological activities of primary plant metabolite lectins. The aim of our experiment was to find out how lectin LysM (lysine motif), which was previously purified, affects the immune response in vivo. Eight-week-old BALB/c male mice (n = 15) received four weekly 250 μg/kg peritonial injections of purified Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench) roots’ LysM lectin. The control animal group (n = 15) received 50 μL peritoneal injections of fresh Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench) root tincture, and the negative control animal group (n = 15) received 50 μL peritoneal injections of physiological solution. At the fifth experimental week, the animals were sedated with carbon dioxide, and later euthanized by cervical dislocation, and then their blood and spleen samples were collected. The leukocytes’ formula and lymphocytes’ count was estimated in blood samples, the T lymphocytes’ density was evaluated in spleen zones. A statistically significant (p < 0.05) difference between each group was observed in the leukocytes’ formula (monocytes’ percentage, also little, medium and giant size lymphocytes). The purple coneflower fresh roots’ tincture significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the T lymphocytes’ quantity in peritoneal lymphoid sheaths (PALS) compared with the physiological solution injection’s group (p < 0.05) and the lectin injection’s group (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, lectin injections caused a significant (p < 0.01) increase in the T lymphocytes in a spleen PALS zone, compared with the physiological solution and tincture injection’s group. Our data suggests that LysM lectin acts as an immunostimulant, while fresh purple coneflower tincture causes immunosuppression.
  • 643
  • 15 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Sulfur in Agronomic Biofortification with Essential Micronutrients
Sulfur (S) plays crucial roles, including in the management of the essential micronutrients (EM) metalome. Each of the EM at first exists as a free cation, which is an existence that causes undesirable actions. Efficient handling of the EM metalome requires efficient chelation, transport, and translocation, along with efficient management of these actions. For each one of these management systems toward handling each EM properly, the phytoavailability of EM, along with the proper form of S in place and in time, is of central interest. Moreover, the functional EM metalome of plants is modified by S availability.
  • 643
  • 25 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Metabolomics' Role in Crop Improvement and Abiotic Stresses
Plant metabolomics is a rapidly advancing field of plant sciences and systems biology. It involves comprehensive analyses of small molecules (metabolites) in plant tissues and cells. These metabolites include a wide range of compounds, such as sugars, amino acids, organic acids, secondary metabolites (e.g., alkaloids and flavonoids), lipids, and more. Metabolomics allows an understanding of the functional roles of specific metabolites in plants’ physiology, development, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. It can lead to the identification of metabolites linked with specific traits or functions. Plant metabolic networks and pathways can be better understood with the help of metabolomics. Researchers can determine how plants react to environmental cues or genetic modifications by examining how metabolite profiles change under various crop stages. Metabolomics plays a major role in crop improvement and biotechnology. 
  • 643
  • 15 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Agricultural Sustainability under Climatic Extremes
The challenging alterations in climate in the last decades have had direct and indirect influences on biotic and abiotic stresses that have led to devastating implications on agricultural crop production and food security. Extreme environmental conditions, such as abiotic stresses, offer great opportunities to study the influence of different microorganisms in plant development and agricultural productivity.
  • 642
  • 09 May 2023
Topic Review
Somatic Embryogenesis Initiation in Sugi
This entry aimed to obtain information from several embryogenic cell (EC) genotypes analyzing the factors that affect somatic embryogenesis (SE) initiation in sugi (Cryptomeria japonica, Cupressaceae) to apply them in the improvement of protocols for efficient induction of embryogenic cell lines (ECLs). The results of several years of experiments including studies on the influence of initial explant, seed collection time, and explant genotype as the main factors affecting SE initiation from male-fertile, male-sterile, and polycross-pollinated-derived seeds are described. Initiation frequencies depending on the plant genotype varied from 1.35 to 57.06%. The best induction efficiency was achieved when seeds were collected on mid-July using the entire megagametophyte as initial explants. The extrusion of ECs started approximately after 2 weeks of culture, and the establishment of ECLs was observed mostly 4 weeks after extrusion on media with or without plant growth regulators (PGRs). Subsequently, induced ECLs were maintained and proliferated on media with PGRs by 2–3-week-interval subculture routines. Although, the initial explant, collection time, and culture condition played important roles in ECL induction, the genotype of the plant material of sugi was the most influential factor in SE initiation.
  • 641
  • 09 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Metabolic Signature of Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress is an integral component of various stress conditions in plants, and this fact largely determines the substantial overlap in physiological and molecular responses to biotic and abiotic environmental challenges. Despite of the significant variation in oxidative stress responses among different plant species and tissues, dynamic and transient character of stress-induced changes in metabolites, and the strong dependence of metabolic responses on the intensity of stress, the available literature data reveal the specific characteristic changes in sugars, sugar derivatives, tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites, and amino acids, associated with adaptation to oxidative stress. The information about metabolic signature of oxidative stress provides the theoretical base for the selection/generation of plants with improved tolerance to oxidative stress and the development of metabolic markers applicable in research and routine agricultural practice.
  • 641
  • 20 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Diterpenoid Compounds Isolated from Clerodendrum Genus
One of the key areas of interest in pharmacognosy is that of the diterpenoids; many studies have been performed to identify new sources, their optimal isolation and biological properties. An important source of abietane-, pimarane-, clerodane-type diterpenoids and their derivatives are the members of the genus Clerodendrum, of the Lamiaceae. Due to their diverse chemical nature, and the type of plant material, a range of extraction techniques are needed with various temperatures, solvent types and extraction times, as well as the use of an ultrasound bath. The diterpenoids isolated from Clerodendrum demonstrate a range of cytotoxic, anti-proliferative, antibacterial, anti-parasitic and anti-inflammatory activities.
  • 640
  • 10 May 2023
Topic Review
Ketols Serve Signaling Roles in Plant–Pathogen Interactions
Plants produce an array of oxylipins implicated in defense responses against various stresses, with about 600 oxylipins identified in plants to date. Most known oxylipins are the products of lipoxygenase (LOX)-mediated oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. One of the most well-characterized oxylipins produced by plants is the hormone jasmonic acid (JA); however, the function of the vast majority of oxylipins remains a mystery. One of the lesser-studied groups of oxylipins is comprised of ketols produced by the sequential action of LOX, allene oxide synthase (AOS), followed by non-enzymatic hydrolysis. Ketols were mostly considered mere by-products of JA biosynthesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that ketols exhibit hormone-like signaling activities in the regulation of diverse physiological processes, including flowering, germination, plant–symbiont interactions, and defense against biotic and abiotic stresses. 
  • 640
  • 07 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Signaling Pathway-Mediated Strategies for Plant Thermotolerance
Cell membrane is mainly composed of phospholipids, which are elastic and semi-permeable membranes with a thickness of 7-8 nm. For animal cells, the outer side of the membrane is in contact with the external environment. Its main functions are to selectively exchange substances, absorb nutrients, excrete metabolic waste, secrete and transport proteins. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) refer to the general term for oxygen-containing free radicals and peroxides that are easily formed in organisms related to oxygen metabolism. Examples include peroxides, superoxides, hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen, and α-oxygen. Calmodulin (CaM) is a multifunctional protein that is widely present in various eukaryotic cells and can bind to calcium ions. Calmodulin participates in various intracellular signaling pathways and plays a key role in Ca2+ dependent signaling pathways. It is a dynamic Ca2+ sensor that can respond to a wide range of Ca2+ concentrations and transmit signals downstream. Heat shock transcription factors (HSF) usually exist in non-stressed cells as monomers and bind to a small number of heat shock proteins. Under heat stress, they dissociate from the heat shock proteins, polymerize from monomers into trimers, move to the nucleus, and bind to the promoter sequence upstream of the heat shock gene to initiate the transcription activity of the gene, leading to an increase in heat shock proteins and thus protecting other proteins.
  • 640
  • 31 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Extensive Green Roofs
Extensive Green Roofs (EGRs) are nature-based solutions that provide several environmental, health, social, and economic benefits. This synthesis of about 1430 scientific papers, based on the five Ws, When, Where, Why, Who, and Which, aims to understand how interest in these important green infrastructures originated and developed, as well as the nature of such academic research. Special attention was paid to the way researchers approached plant selection.
  • 639
  • 21 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Plant Leaf Gas Exchange to Plant Phenotyping
Plant physiological status reflects the interaction between the plant genome and the prevailing growth conditions. Accurate characterization of plant physiology is, therefore, fundamental to effective plant phenotyping studies; particularly those focused on identifying traits associated with improved yield, lower input requirements, and climate resilience. Leaf gas exchange is a core component of plant physiological research. The exchange of gases between a part of the leaf, the whole leaf, or the entire plant with the atmosphere underpins photosynthetic CO2 uptake and transpiration.
  • 638
  • 22 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Chromium Morpho-Phytotoxicity
Chromium (Cr) is considered as one of the chronic pollutants that cause damage to all living forms, including plants. Various industries release an excessive amount of Cr into the environment. The increasing accumulation of Cr in agricultural land causes a significant decrease in the yield and quality of economically important crops. The Cr-induced biochemical, molecule, cytotoxic, genotoxic, and hormonal impairments cause the inhibition of plant growth and development.
  • 635
  • 12 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Nanoparticles in Eliminating Contamination and Seed Germination
Owing to their minuscule size, nanoparticles (NPs) acquire novel and unique properties that differ from their bulkier counterparts, giving rise to breakthrough technology with application-based solutions in many sectors of agriculture and plant biotechnology. 
  • 635
  • 14 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Omics Technologies in the Study of Fruit-Elicitor Interaction
Fruit losses and wastage are mainly due to postharvest diseases; their control is reduced with pesticides. The excessive use of synthetic fungicides has caused harmful effects on human health and the environment, so it is therefore necessary to reduce their use. The development of new innocuous strategies has led to the use of compounds of natural or biological origin with the capacity to induce the plant defense system, which improves the fruit’s response against future pathogen attacks in addition to reducing the incidence of postharvest diseases. These compounds are known as “elicitors”. Although the use of molecular tools such as RT-qPCR or the measurement of the enzymatic activity of molecular markers makes it possible to determine the activation of the plant defense system in response to the application of an elicitor compound, omics technologies such as the transcriptome, proteome, or metabolome have provided new and interesting information that helps to elucidate the molecular aspects involved in the activation of the plant defense system in response to the application of elicitors.
  • 633
  • 26 May 2023
Topic Review
Plant Glutathione Peroxidases
Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are non-heme peroxidases catalyzing the reduction of H2O2 or organic hydroperoxides to water or corresponding alcohols using glutathione (GSH) or thioredoxin (TRX) as a reducing agent. In contrast to animal GPXs, the plant enzymes are non-seleno monomeric proteins that generally utilize TRX more effectively than GSH but can be a putative link between the two main redox systems. Because of the substantial differences compared to non-plant GPXs, use of the GPX-like (GPXL) name was suggested for Arabidopsis enzymes. GPX(L)s not only can protect cells from stress-induced oxidative damages but are crucial components of plant development and growth. Due to fine-tuning the H2O2 metabolism and redox homeostasis, they are involved in the whole life cycle even under normal growth conditions. Significantly new mechanisms were discovered related to their transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications by describing gene regulatory networks, interacting microRNA families, or identifying Lys decrotonylation in enzyme activation. 
  • 632
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Structural Diversity of Simply Oxygenated Benzophenones
Naturally occurring benzophenones represent a relatively small group of plant metabolites with narrow distribution, mainly in members of Clusiaceae, Gentianaceae, Hypericaceae, Polygalaceae, Myrtaceae, etc.
  • 621
  • 13 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Resurrection Plants as Source of  Natural Bioactive Compounds
Resurrection plant species are a group of higher plants whose vegetative tissues are able to withstand long periods of almost full desiccation and recover quickly upon rewatering. Apart from being a model system for studying desiccation tolerance, resurrection plant species appear to be a valuable source of metabolites, with various areas of application. A significant number of papers have been published with respect to the extraction and application of bioactive compounds from higher resurrection plant species in various test systems. Promising results have been obtained with respect to antioxidative and antiaging effects in various test systems, particularly regarding valuable anticancer effects in human cell lines. 
  • 620
  • 27 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Genotype-Mediated Transposable Element Transposition Reactivation
Genetic diversity is a key factor for plant breeding. The birth of novel genic and genomic variants is also crucial for plant adaptation in nature. Therefore, the genomes of almost all living organisms possess natural mutagenic mechanisms. Transposable elements (TEs) are a major mutagenic force driving genetic diversity in wild plants and modern crops. The relatively rare TE transposition activity during the thousand-year crop domestication process has led to the phenotypic diversity of many cultivated species. The utilization of TE mutagenesis by artificial and transient acceleration of their activity in a controlled mode is an attractive foundation for a novel type of mutagenesis called TE-mediated biological mutagenesis.
  • 618
  • 06 Dec 2023
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