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Topic Review
Immunotherapy for Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
Peritoneal carcinomatosis is a challenging condition that affects many cancer patients, and conventional therapies have limited efficacy in treating it. However, recent advances in the field of immunotherapy have shown promise in improving treatment outcomes. One promising approach is immune checkpoint inhibitors, which block proteins that inhibit T-cell activity and promote an anti-tumor immune response. Another approach involves the use of CAR-T cells, which are genetically modified T cells engineered to recognize and target cancer cells expressing specific antigens. In addition, dendritic cells and vaccine-based therapeutics are also designed to stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells.
  • 1.8K
  • 15 Jun 2023
Topic Review
The Biotin–(Strept)avidin System
A prevalent, well-characterized immobilization design system is the biotin–(strept)avidin interaction. The biotin–(strept)avidin interaction is considered to be one of the most specific and stable non-covalent interaction, whose dissociation constant (KD) is about 103 to 106 times higher than an antigen–antibody interaction. Its high affinity is principally useful for isolating and amplifying the signal, which increases the ability for the detection of very low concentrations of analyte while decreasing the number of steps required for measurement, allowing for a more rapid quantitation of analyte. The biotin–(strept)avidin system offers enormous advantages over other covalent and non-covalent interactions, which include amplification of weak signals, efficient operation, robustness, and astonishing stability against manipulation, proteolytic enzymes, temperature and pH extremes, harsh organic reagents, and other denaturing reagents. Since the biotin–(strept)avidin interaction is one of the strongest known non-covalent interactions in nature, avidin and its analogues have therefore been extensively used as probes and affinity matrices for a wide variety of applications in the field of biotechnology, such as biochemical assays, diagnostics, affinity purification, and drug delivery.
  • 1.8K
  • 22 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Lamin-A/C expression in immune cells
Nuclear envelope lamin A/C type-V intermediate filaments are a major constituent of the mammalian nuclear lamina, a dense fibrous protein meshwork located in the nuclear interior. Lamin A/C proteins control nuclear mechanics and structure and modify cellular signaling, gene transcription, epigenetic regulation, cell cycle progression, cell differentiation, and cell migration. The immune system is constituted by the innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immune response is mediated by myeloid cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. These cells produce a rapid and nonspecific response through phagocytosis, cytokine production, and complement activation, as well as activating adaptive immunity. Specific adaptive immune response is provoked by antigen presentation by antigen presenting cells (APCs) and the cytokine milieu, and is mainly mediated by the cellular functions of T cells and the production of antibodies by B cells. Unlike most cell types, immune cells regulate their lamin A/C protein expression relatively rapidly to exert their functions, with expression increasing in macrophages, reducing in neutrophils, and increasing transiently in T cells. In this article, it is discussed and summarized studies that have addressed the regulation of the expression of lamin A/C in cells of the innate and adaptive immune system.
  • 1.8K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Endothelial to mesenchymal transition
Lung diseases, such as pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary fibrosis, are life-threatening diseases and have common features of vascular remodeling. During progression, extracellular matrix protein deposition and dysregulation of proteolytic enzymes occurs, which results in vascular stiffness and dysfunction. Although vasodilators or anti-fibrotic therapy have been mainly used as therapy owing to these characteristics, their effectiveness does not meet expectations. Therefore, a better understanding of the etiology and new therapeutic approaches are needed. Endothelial cells (ECs) line the inner walls of blood vessels and maintain vascular homeostasis by protecting vascular cells from pathological stimuli. Chronic stimulation of ECs by various factors, including pro-inflammatory cytokines and hypoxia, leads to ECs undergoing an imbalance of endothelial homeostasis, which results in endothelial dysfunction and is closely associated with vascular diseases.
  • 1.8K
  • 22 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Human Endogenous Retrovirus in Neurodegeneration
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are ancient retroviral DNA sequences established into germline. They contain regulatory elements and encoded proteins few of which may provide benefits to hosts when co-opted as cellular genes. Their tight regulation is mainly achieved by epigenetic mechanisms, which can be altered by environmental factors, e.g., viral infections, leading to HERV activation. This review summarizes the recent advances on the epigenetic mechanisms controlling HERV expression and the pathogenic effects triggered by HERV de-repression leading to neurological diseases, inflammatory processes and neurodegeneration.
  • 1.8K
  • 04 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Delivery of Nucleic Acid Using Dendrimers
Dendrimers are a class of three-dimensional nanosized synthetic macromolecules with a well-defined globular architecture. Due to their unique properties of monodispersity, biocompatibility, and excellent biodegradability, dendrimers themselves represent an intriguing class of nanovectors for the delivery of nucleic acid-based vaccines. In this entry, researchers have demonstrated the growing interest in dendrimers as carriers of DNA and mRNA vaccines, which can become an alternative to other delivery methods.
  • 1.8K
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Neutrophils
Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating and first-responding innate myeloid cells and have so far been underestimated in the context of multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is the most frequent, immune-mediated, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. MS is treatable but not curable and its cause(s) and pathogenesis remain elusive. The involvement of neutrophils in MS pathogenesis has been suggested by the use of preclinical animal disease models, as well as on the basis of patient sample analysis. In this review, we provide an overview of the possible mechanisms and functions by which neutrophils may contribute to the development and pathology of MS. Neutrophils display a broad variety of e ector functions enabling disease pathogenesis, including (1) the release of inflammatory mediators and enzymes, such as interleukin-1 , myeloperoxidase and various proteinases, (2) destruction and phagocytosis of myelin (as debris), (3) release of neutrophil extracellular traps, (4) production of reactive oxygen species, (5) breakdown of the blood–brain barrier and (6) generation and presentation of autoantigens. An important question relates to the issue of whether neutrophils exhibit a predominantly proinflammatory function or are also implicated in the resolution of chronic inflammatory responses in MS.
  • 1.8K
  • 05 Sep 2025
Topic Review
Antibodies in HIV-infection and HIV-vaccine development
The structure of HIV-envelope changes as the infection progresses and is one of the biggest obstacles in developing of HIV-vaccine. HIV-infection can cause the production of various natural autoantibodies, including catalytic antibodies hydrolyzing DNA, myelin basic protein, histones, HIV-integrase, HIV-reverse transcriptase, β-casein, serum albumin, and some other natural substrates. Currently, there are various directions for the development of HIV vaccines: stimulation of the immune response on the mucous membranes; induction of cytotoxic T cells, which lyse infected cells and hold back HIV-infection; immunization with recombinant Env proteins or vectors encoding Env; mRNA-based vaccines and some others. 
  • 1.8K
  • 22 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Green Tea Catechin EGCG-Sensing Receptor
The body is equipped with a “food factor-sensing system” that senses food factors, such as polyphenols, sulfur-containing compounds, and vitamins, taken into the body, and plays an essential role in manifesting their physiological effects. For example, (−)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (EGCG), the representative catechin in green tea (Camellia sinensi L.), exerts various effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic effects, when sensed by the cell surficial protein 67-kDa laminin receptor (67LR). 
  • 1.8K
  • 19 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Bacterial Lipopolysaccharides
Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also referred to as endotoxins, are major outer surface membrane components present on almost all Gram-negative bacteria and are major determinants of sepsis-related clinical complications including septic shock. LPS acts as a strong stimulator of innate or natural immunity in a wide variety of eukaryotic species ranging from insects to humans including specific effects on the adaptive immune system.
  • 1.7K
  • 25 Aug 2022
Topic Review
O-Acetyl Sialylation
The recently emerged SARS-CoV-2 is the cause of the global health crisis of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. No evidence is yet available for CoV infection into hosts upon zoonotic disease outbreak, although the CoV epidemy resembles influenza viruses, which use sialic acid (SA). Currently, information on SARS-CoV-2 and its receptors is limited. O-acetylated SAs interact with the lectin-like spike glycoprotein of SARS CoV-2 for the initial attachment of viruses to enter into the host cells. SARS-CoV-2 hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) acts as the classical glycan-binding lectin and receptor-degrading enzyme. Most β-CoVs recognize 9-O-acetyl-SAs but switched to recognizing the 4-O-acetyl-SA form during evolution of CoVs. Type I HE is specific for the 9-O-Ac-SAs and type II HE is specific for 4-O-Ac-SAs. The SA-binding shift proceeds through quasi-synchronous adaptations of the SA-recognition sites of the lectin and esterase domains. The molecular switching of HE acquisition of 4-O-acetyl binding from 9-O-acetyl SA binding is caused by protein–carbohydrate interaction (PCI) or lectin–carbohydrate interaction (LCI). The HE gene was transmitted to a β-CoV lineage A progenitor by horizontal gene transfer from a 9-O-Ac-SA–specific HEF, as in influenza virus C/D. HE acquisition, and expansion takes place by cross-species transmission over HE evolution. This reflects viral evolutionary adaptation to host SA-containing glycans. Therefore, CoV HE receptor switching precedes virus evolution driven by the SA-glycan diversity of the hosts. The PCI or LCI stereochemistry potentiates the SA–ligand switch by a simple conformational …
  • 1.7K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Nutrients’ Role in Epigenetic Modifications
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by an aberrant immune response and persistent inflammation. Epigenetic changes are dynamic and susceptible to modification in response to environmental stimuli, which provides a feasible intervention to influence epigenetic homeostasis through an “epigenetic diet.” The term epigenetic diet was previously described by Daniel et al., referring to the consumption of certain foods, such as soy, grapes, vegetables, and green tea, which exert mechanisms against aging and cancer. 
  • 1.7K
  • 28 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Nuclear Receptor Related-1 Protein
The entry summarizes the roles of Nurr1 in a wide range of tumors and the underlying pathways for carcinogenesis.  Nuclear receptor related-1 protein (Nurr1), coded by an early response gene, is involved in multiple cellular and physiological functions, including proliferation, survival, and self-renewal. Dysregulation of Nurr1 has been frequently observed in many cancers and is attributed to multiple transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms.
  • 1.7K
  • 26 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Neutrophil Extracellular Traps and Human Disease
The first description of a new form of neutrophil cell death distinct from that of apoptosis or necrosis was discovered in 2004 and coined neutrophil extracellular traps “(NETs)” or “NETosis”. Different stimuli for NET formation, and pathways that drive neutrophils to commit to NETosis have been elucidated in the years that followed. Critical enzymes required for NET formation have been discovered and targeted therapeutically. It has become clear that although this mechanism is thought to enhance host defense by ensnaring bacteria within large webs of DNA to increase bactericidal killing capacity, it is also injurious to innocent bystander tissue. Proteases and enzymes released from NETs injure epithelial and endothelial cells, perpetuating inflammation. In the context of autoimmunity, NETs release over 70 well-known autoantigens. NETs are associated with pathology in multiple diseases: lung diseases, vasculitis, autoimmune kidney diseases, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and psoriasis. Defining these pathways that drive NET release will provide insight into mechanisms of pathological insult and provide potential therapeutic targets.
  • 1.7K
  • 25 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Mechanisms of Scombroid Food Poisoning
Scombroid food poisoning (SFP) is a foodborne disease that develops after consumption of fresh fish and, rarely, seafood that has fine organoleptic characteristics but contains a large amount of exogenous histamine. SFP, like other food pseudo-allergic reactions (FPA), is a disorder that is clinically identical to allergic reactions type I, but there are many differences in their pathogenesis. Since SFP is an FPA, exogenous histamine intoxication is strictly dose dependent. Increased intoxication with exogenous histamine leads to an increase in symptoms and a deterioration in the human condition.
  • 1.7K
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Natural Killer Cells and Cytotoxic T Cells
Natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T (CD8+) cells are two of the most important types of immune cells in our body, protecting it from deadly invaders. While the NK cell is part of the innate immune system, the CD8+ cell is one of the major components of adaptive immunity. Still, these two very different types of cells share the most important function of destroying pathogen-infected and tumorous cells by releasing cytotoxic granules that promote proteolytic cleavage of harmful cells, leading to apoptosis.
  • 1.7K
  • 08 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Muramyl Peptides of Bacterial Origin
Muramyl peptides (MPs) are part of the peptidoglycan that forms the backbone of the cell walls of bacteria—both Gram-positive and Gram-negative. MPs are formed during the degradation of bacteria and are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are recognized by innate immune receptors.
  • 1.7K
  • 02 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Challenges in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an immune-mediated multi-systemic disease characterized by a wide variability of clinical manifestations and a course frequently subject to unpredictable flares. Despite significant advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology and optimization of medical care, patients with SLE still have significant mortality and carry a risk of progressive organ damage accrual and reduced health-related quality of life.
  • 1.7K
  • 19 Feb 2021
Topic Review
AP-1 Transcription Factors in Cancer
Immune check point blockade therapy has revolutionized the standard of cancer treatment and is credited with producing remarkable tumor remissions and increase in overall survival. This unprecedented clinical success however is feasible for a limited number of cancer patients due to resistance occurring before or during a course of immunotherapy, which is often associated with activation of oncogenic signaling pathways, co-inhibitory checkpoints upregulation or expansion of immunosuppressive regulatory T-cells (Tregs) in the tumor microenviroment (TME). Targeted therapy aiming to inactivate a signaling pathway such as the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) has recently received a lot of attention due to emerging data from preclinical studies indicating synergy with immune checkpoint blockade therapy. The dimeric transcription factor complex Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) is a group of proteins involved in a wide array of cell processes and a critical regulator of nuclear gene expression during T-cell activation. It is also one of the downstream targets of the MAPK signaling cascade.
  • 1.7K
  • 09 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Th17/Treg Imbalance in Lung Inflammatory Diseases
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper 17 cells (Th17) are two CD4+ T cell subsets with antagonist effects. Th17 cells promote inflammation, whereas Tregs are crucial in maintaining immune homeostasis. Th17 cells and Treg cells are the foremost players in several inflammatory diseases.
  • 1.7K
  • 03 Apr 2023
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