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Topic Review
Gut Dysbiosis during COVID-19
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an RNA virus of the family Coronaviridae, causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an influenza-like disease that chiefly infects the lungs through respiratory transmission. The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, a transmembrane protein in its outer portion, targets angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the binding receptor for the cell entry. As ACE2 is highly expressed in the gut and pulmonary tissues, SARS-CoV-2 infections frequently result in gastrointestinal inflammation, with presentations ordinarily ranging from intestinal cramps to complications with intestinal perforations. However, the evidence detailing successful therapy for gastrointestinal involvement in COVID-19 patients is currently limited. A significant change in fecal microbiomes, namely dysbiosis, was characterized by the enrichment of opportunistic pathogens and the depletion of beneficial commensals and their crucial association to COVID-19 severity has been evidenced. Oral probiotics had been evidenced to improve gut health in achieving homeostasis by exhibiting their antiviral effects via the gut–lung axis.
  • 835
  • 16 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Antibacterial Peptides Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that mainly colonizes the nasal cavity and skin. To colonize the host, it is necessary for S. aureus to resist many antibacterial factors derived from human and commensal bacteria. Among them are the bacteria-derived antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) called bacteriocins. It was reported that some two-component systems (TCSs), which are signal transduction systems specific to bacteria, are involved in the resistance to several bacteriocins in S. aureus. However, the TCS-mediated resistance is limited to relatively low concentrations of bacteriocins, while high concentrations of bacteriocins still exhibit antibacterial activity against S. aureus.
  • 832
  • 22 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Ocular and Oral Microbiome
The immune-privileged healthy eye has a small unique population of microbiota. Typically, ocular microflorae are commensals of low diversity that colonize the external and internal sites of the eye, without instigating any disorders. Any alteration in the symbiotic relationship culminates in the perturbation of ocular homeostasis and shifts the equilibrium toward local or systemic inflammation and, in turn, impaired visual function. A compositional variation in the ocular microbiota is associated with surface disorders such as keratitis, blepharitis, and conjunctivitis, however, studies now implicate non-ocular microbial dysbiosis in glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), uveitis, and diabetic retinopathy. A methodical understanding of the mechanisms of invasion and host-microbial interaction is of paramount importance for preventative and therapeutic interventions for vision-threatening conditions.
  • 831
  • 21 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Cytotoxins
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the most virulent opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogens in humans. It causes many acute and chronic infections with morbidity and mortality rates as high as 40%. P. aeruginosa owes its pathogenic versatility to a large arsenal of cell-associated and secreted virulence factors which enable this pathogen to colonize various niches within hosts and protect it from host innate immune defenses. Induction of cytotoxicity in target host cells is a major virulence strategy for P. aeruginosa during the course of infection. P. aeruginosa has invested heavily in this strategy, as manifested by a plethora of cytotoxins that can induce various forms of cell death in target host cells.
  • 829
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Apicortin and Its Tentative Role
Apicortin was identified in silico, in 2009, as a characteristic protein of apicomplexans. It combines a partial p25alpha domain with a DCX (doublecortin) one. Based on its occurrence and one of its characteristic domains, it was termed apicortin. Apicortin, when identified, was shown to occur in apicomplexan parasites and in the placozoan animal, Trichoplax adhaerens. The apicomplexan genomes known then contained it without exception. This situation practically has not changed since then; this statement is valid for the newly sequenced genomes and transcriptomes of apicomplexans as well, almost without exception.
  • 828
  • 16 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Sources of Antifungal Drugs
Due to their eukaryotic heritage, the differences between a fungal pathogen’s molecular makeup and its human host are small. Therefore, the discovery and subsequent development of novel antifungal drugs are extremely challenging. Nevertheless, since the 1940s, researchers have successfully uncovered potent candidates from natural or synthetic sources. Analogs and novel formulations of these drugs enhanced the pharmacological parameters and improved overall drug efficiency. These compounds ultimately became the founding members of novel drug classes and were successfully applied in clinical settings, offering valuable and efficient treatment of mycosis for decades.
  • 828
  • 16 May 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenic Bacteria and Fresh Produce
The consumer demand for fresh produce (vegetables and fruits) has considerably increased since the 1980s for more nutritious foods and healthier life practices, particularly in developed countries. Several foodborne outbreaks have been linked to fresh produce. The global rise in fresh produce associated with human infections may be due to the use of wastewater or any contaminated water for the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, the firm attachment of the foodborne pathogens on the plant surface, and the internalization of these agents deep inside the tissue of the plant, poor disinfection practices and human consumption of raw fresh produce.
  • 827
  • 24 Mar 2023
Topic Review
B, C and D in Escherichia coli
The basic properties of the Escherichia coli duplication process can be defined by two time periods: C, the time for a round of chromosome replication, and D, the time between the end of a round of replication and cell division. Given the durations of these periods, the pattern of chromosome replication during the cell cycle can be determined for cells growing with any doubling time.
  • 826
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Impacts of Microbial Metabolites on Fishery Products
Biopreservative bacteria, or their metabolites, compete with the undesirable microbiota and dominate the microbiota by utilizing available nutrients. Microbial metabolites (bacteriocins, reuterin, pediocin, lacticin, bacteriophage, organic acids and others) possess antimicrobial activity against a wide spectrum of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, including anti-listeria.
  • 824
  • 27 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Application of Antifungal Nanomaterials
Fungi are a varied group of eukaryotic creatures that colonize a variety of ecological niches, each of which requires a specific set of morphological characteristics]. It has been projected that there are between 3 and 5 million different types of fungi in the environment and. of those, around 300 different species have the potential to cause diseases in humans. Because they most frequently infect people whose immune systems are compromised, the majority of the members of this fungus group are classified as opportunistic pathogens. Meanwhile, only a select few species provide a significant risk to people who are otherwise healthy. The human fungal pathogens are responsible for a wide variety of infectious diseases, including those that affect the mucosa, the skin, and the invasive tissue. Because of their rapid development, resistance to high temperatures (37 degrees Celsius), ability to exploit the host’s nutrition to their advantage, ability to penetrate tissues, and ability to avoid the host immune system, pathogenic fungi are successful in infecting humans and causing illness. The Cryptococcus, Mucor, Aspergillus, and Candida genus are some of the fungal species that are responsible for the majority of the fatal illnesses that are caused by fungi.
  • 823
  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Fermented Products
It is speculated that traditional fermented non-dairy beverages have been produced by humans since around 7000 B.C.. These foods are known to confer several health benefits due to their biological properties that include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic effects. These health effects are associated with the presence of viable beneficial microorganisms (probiotics), their metabolites and cellular fragments (postbiotics), and non-digestible fibers (prebiotics). 
  • 823
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Biospeckle Analysis and Biofilm Electrostatic Tests
The development of more sensitive methodologies, capable of quickly detecting and monitoring a microbial population present in a specific biological matrix, as well as performing to allow for the study of all its metabolic changes (e.g., during the formation of biofilm) to occur, is an essential requirement for both well-being and the food industry. Two techniques, in particular, have gained the attention of scientists: The first is “biospeckle”, an optical technique representing an innovative tool for applications in food quality, food safety, and nutraceuticals.  A second technique with great chances is the “biofilm electrostatic test” (BET). BET undoubtedly represents a fast, simple, and highly reproducible tool suitable for admitting the evaluation of the in vitro bacterial capacity in order to adhere through an electrostatic interaction with a pyro-electrified carrier after only 2 h of incubation.
  • 822
  • 03 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Rudivirus
Rudivirus is a genus of viruses in the order Ligamenvirales; it is the only genus in the family Rudiviridae. These viruses are non-enveloped, stiff-rod-shaped viruses with linear dsDNA genomes, that infect hyperthermophilic archaea of the kingdom Crenarchaeota. There are currently three species in this genus including the type species Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 2. The family name derives from the Latin rudis, thin rod, referring to the virion shape.
  • 822
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Huanglongbing Pandemic: Current Challenges and Emerging Management Strategies
Huanglongbing (HLB, aka citrus greening), one of the most devastating diseases of citrus, has wreaked havoc on the global citrus industry in recent decades. The culprit behind such a gloomy scenario is the phloem-limited bacteria “Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus” (CLas), which are transmitted via psyllid. To date, there are no effective long-termcommercialized control measures for HLB, making it increasingly difficult to prevent the disease spread. To combat HLB effectively, introduction of multipronged management strategies towards controlling CLas population within the phloem system is deemed necessary. This entry presents a comprehensive review of up-to-date scientific information about HLB, including currently available management practices and unprecedented challenges associated with the disease control. Additionally, a triangular disease management approach has been introduced targeting pathogen, host, and vector. Pathogen-targeting approaches include (i) inhibition of important proteins of CLas, (ii) use of the most efficient antimicrobial or immunity-inducing compounds to suppress the growth of CLas, and (iii) use of tools to suppress or kill the CLas. Approaches for targeting the host include (i) improvement of the host immune system, (ii) effective use of transgenic variety to build the host’s resistance against CLas, and (iii) induction of systemic acquired resistance. Strategies for targeting the vector include (i) chemical and biological control and (ii) eradication of HLB-affected trees. Finally, a hypothetical model for integrated disease management has been discussed to mitigate the HLB pandemic.
  • 822
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Methods for Manipulating Cryptococcus Spores
Spores are essential for the long-term survival of many diverse organisms, due to their roles in reproduction and stress resistance. In the environmental human fungal pathogen, Cryptococcus, basidiospores are robust cells with the ability to cause disease in animal models of infection.
  • 820
  • 23 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Gold Organs in Brucellosis
Brucella is an intracellular bacterium that causes abortion, reproduction failure in livestock and leads to a debilitating flu-like illness with serious chronic complications if untreated in humans. The “gold organs” for nesting Brucella, in which Brucella replicates in cells of the reticular endothelial system, include the spleen, lymph nodes, liver, bone marrow, epididymis, and placenta.
  • 820
  • 19 May 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenic, Commensal, or Beneficial Role of Intestinal Protozoa
The human gastrointestinal microbiota contains a diverse consortium of microbes, including bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi. Through millennia of co-evolution, the host–microbiota interactions have shaped the immune system to both tolerate and maintain the symbiotic relationship with commensal microbiota, while exerting protective responses against invading pathogens. Microbiome research is dominated by studies describing the impact of prokaryotic bacteria on gut immunity with a limited understanding of their relationship with other integral microbiota constituents. However, converging evidence shows that eukaryotic organisms, such as commensal protozoa, can play an important role in modulating intestinal immune responses as well as influencing the overall health of the host. The presence of several protozoa species has recently been shown to be a common occurrence in healthy populations worldwide, suggesting that many of these are commensals rather than invading pathogens. 
  • 817
  • 01 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Immunomodulation, Bioavailability and Safety of Bacteriocins
Bacteriocins can help in the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases. Moreover, bacteriocins can be obtained in prokaryotic organisms, and contribute s to their widespread use. While the use of bacteriocins is currently limited to the food industry (for example, nisin is used as a preservative, E234), a large number of studies on their microbicidal properties suggest that their use in medicine may increase in the foreseeable future. However, for the successful use of bacteriocins in medicine, it is necessary to understand their effect on the immune system, especially in cases where immunity is weakened due to infectious processes, oncological, allergic, or autoimmune diseases. Studies on the immuno-modulatory activity of bacteriocins in animal models and human cells have revealed their ability to induce both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors involved in the implementation of innate immunity. The influence of bacteriocins on acquired immunity is revealed by an increase in the number of T-lymphocytes with a simultaneous decrease in B-lymphocyte levels, which makes them attractive substances for reducing inflammation. The widespread use of bacteriocins in the food industry, their low toxicity, and their broad and narrow specificity are reasons for researchers to pay attention to their immunomodulatory properties and explore their medical applications. Inflammation regulation by bacteriocins can be used in the treatment of various pathologies.
  • 815
  • 24 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Milk Fat Globules
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are zoonotic Gram-negative bacteria. While raw milk cheese consumption is healthful, contamination with pathogens such as STEC can occur due to poor hygiene practices at the farm level. STEC infections cause mild to serious symptoms in humans. The raw milk cheese-making process concentrates certain milk macromolecules such as proteins and milk fat globules (MFGs), allowing the intrinsic beneficial and pathogenic microflora to continue to thrive. MFGs are surrounded by a biological membrane, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), which has a globally positive health effect, including inhibition of pathogen adhesion.
  • 814
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Elements in the Immune System of a Newborn
The initial exposure to a microbial world for an infant born vaginally is from the mother’s microbiota, influenced by maternal diet, level of stress, smoking history and living conditions. The intestinal microbiome in the first 2–3 years of life participates in the programming and development of the gut immune system, important to immune reactivity and general health as well as to response to infectious organisms and vaccines resulting in protective immunity. The intestinal microbiome and the immune system early in life can put infants on a long-term path to health or lead to medical and allergic disorders that can persist into adulthood.
  • 812
  • 14 Nov 2023
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