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Topic Review
Non-Invasive Neurostimulation for Migraine Treatment
One of the recent innovations in migraine treatment was the detection of several types of neurostimulation for acute and preventive treatment. The basic idea behind this is the stimulation of peripheral and cranial nerve structures or of the cortex to reduce migraine pain or to decrease migraine frequency. This follows a general development in pain therapy showing that specific stimulations of specific nervous structures can lead to a decrease in pain. The most commonly studied and used non-invasive methods are vagal nerve stimulation, electric peripheral nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and transcranial direct current stimulation. Other stimulation techniques, including mechanical stimulation, play only a minor role.
  • 770
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
GABAA-ρ Receptors in the Central Nervous System
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is known as the main inhibitory transmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), where it hyperpolarizes mature neurons through activation of GABAA receptors, pentameric complexes assembled by combination of subunits (α1–6, β1–3, γ1–3, δ, ε, θ, π and ρ1–3). GABAA-ρ subunits were originally described in the retina where they generate non-desensitizing Cl- currents that are insensitive to bicuculline and baclofen. The GABAA-ρ receptors are proposed to be involved in extrasynaptic communication and dysfunction involves reduced expression in Huntington's disease (HD) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD).
  • 770
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Exercise in Cognition and Brain Health in Aging
Physical activity and exercise have a biologically plausible and temporal relationship with a multitude of diseases, including coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, stroke, type 2 diabetes, some cancers, and all-cause mortality. Physical activity is any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. Exercise, on the other hand, is a subset of physical activity that is planned, structured and repetitive and has the improvement or maintenance of physical fitness. Regular endurance and resistance exercise training decreases age-related morbidity and mortality, improves risk factors for chronic disease, and helps maintain independent functioning.
  • 770
  • 07 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Central and Peripheral Nervous System Complications in AFD
Fabry disease (FD) is a recessive monogenic disease linked to chromosome X due to more than two hundred mutations in the alfa-galactosidase A (GLA) gene. In Anderson–Fabry disease (AFD), deficiency of the enzyme alfa-galactosidase A (α-GalA) leads to an abnormal buildup of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), which is associated with end-organ damage, progressive organ failure, and subsequent clinical manifestations.
  • 769
  • 25 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Olfactory Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease
Olfactory dysfunction (OD) is one of the earliest features of PD and has been found to occur even four years before the diagnosis of this neurodegenerative disorder. This affects the patient’s quality of life, considering that the olfactory system plays a crucial role in influencing food flavors, detecting whether they are spoiled, and identifying harmful volatile compounds. 
  • 768
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
CCK2R Structure and Functions
Postoperative pain is defined as acute pain experienced by the patient after a surgical procedure. Good management of postoperative pain is important in reducing complications and facilitating rehabilitation. Postoperative pain relief is mainly based on opioids, and so is associated with side effects such as constipation, respiratory distress and the development of tolerance to administered opioids.
  • 767
  • 13 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Peripheral Prognostic Biomarkers in Treatment-Resistant Depression
Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) accounts for approximately 30–40% of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and is related to a large direct and indirect societal financial burden that represents up to 70% of MDD’s total cost. Partial- or non-responsiveness to antidepressive treatment contributes to disease chronicity, poor quality of life and lower productivity, leading to a significant increase in healthcare expenses, as well as higher relapse rates and suicide risk. Patients with TRD visit general practitioners seven times more often and have three times longer durations of hospitalizations than MDD patients. Impressively, the annual cost of TRD in the U.S.A. alone is estimated at 44 billion dollars. The discovery of new biomarkers and the better clinical characterization of known biomarkers could support the better classification and staging of TRD, the development of personalized treatment algorithms with higher rates of remission and fewer side effects, and the development of new precision drugs for specific subgroups of patients. 
  • 767
  • 28 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Etiology of Alcohol Use Disorder
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a complex, chronic, debilitating condition impacting millions worldwide. Genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors are known to contribute to the development of AUD. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of regulatory RNAs, commonly referred to as the “dark matter” of the genome, with little to no protein-coding potential. LncRNAs have been implicated in numerous processes critical for cell survival, suggesting that they play important functional roles in regulating different cell processes. LncRNAs were also shown to display higher tissue specificity than protein-coding genes and have a higher abundance in the brain and central nervous system, demonstrating a possible role in the etiology of psychiatric disorders.
  • 766
  • 16 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Cognitive Decline and Dementia in Common Cardiac Disorders
Acute and chronic cardiac disorders predispose to alterations in cognitive performance, ranging from mild cognitive impairment to overt dementia. Dysregulated and persistent inflammatory processes have been implicated as potentially causal mediators of the adverse consequences on brain function in patients with cardiac disease.
  • 765
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Effectiveness of Focal Muscle Vibration in Neuromotor Hypofunction
Adequate physical recovery after trauma, injury, disease, a long period of hypomobility, or simply ageing is a difficult goal because rehabilitation protocols are long-lasting and often cannot ensure complete motor recovery. Therefore, the optimisation of rehabilitation procedures is an important target to be achieved. The possibility of restoring motor functions by acting on proprioceptive signals by unspecific repetitive muscle vibration, focally applied on single muscles (RFV), instead of only training muscle function, is a new perspective, as suggested by the effects on the motor performance evidenced by healthy persons. The focal muscle vibration consists of micro-stretching-shortening sequences applied to individual muscles. By repeating such stimulation, an immediate and persistent increase in motility can be attained.
  • 765
  • 16 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Peripheral and Cranial Nerve Tumors Diagnosis and Treatment
Cranial and peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNST) comprise a heterogeneous group of soft tissue tumors. Most arise from classic peripheral nervous system elements (Schwann cells and perineurial cells), while others involve specialized neuroendocrine cells of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (e.g., cauda equina neuroendocrine tumors, previously known as “CNS paragangliomas”). The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of the Central Nervous System (CNS) Tumors of 2021 and the 2020 WHO Classification of Soft Tissue and Bone Tumors include benign and malignant tumors, such as schwannoma, neurofibroma, plexiform neurofibroma (PN), perineurioma, hybrid nerve sheath tumor (HNST), malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST), epithelioid MPNST or malignant melanotic nerve sheath tumor (MMNST), and cauda equine neuroendocrine tumor. All these entities may arise along the craniospinal axis and be encountered either sporadically or as part of neurocutaneous syndromes, including neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), schwannoma predisposition syndromes (SPS), and Carney complex.
  • 764
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Neuroarchitecture in SREBP-1c deficient mice
Changes in structural and functional neuroplasticity have been implicated in various neurological disorders. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c is a critical regulatory molecule of lipid homeostasis in the brain. Recently, our findings have shown the potential involvement of SREBP-1c deficiency in the alteration of novel modulatory molecules in the hippocampus and occurrence of schizophrenia-like behaviors in mice. However, the possible underlying mechanisms, related to neuronal plasticity in the hippocampus, are yet to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the hippocampus-dependent memory function and neuronal architecture of hippocampal neurons in SREBP-1c knockout (KO) mice. During the passive avoidance test, SREBP-1c KO mice showed memory impairment. Based on Golgi staining, the dendritic complexity, length, and branch points were significantly decreased in the apical cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG) subregions of the hippocampi of SREBP-1c KO mice, compared with those of wild-type (WT) mice. Additionally, significant decreases in the dendritic diameters were detected in the CA3 and DG subregions, and spine density was also significantly decreased in the apical CA3 subregion of the hippocampi of KO mice, compared with that of WT mice. Alterations in the proportions of stubby and thin-shaped dendritic spines were observed in the apical subcompartments of CA1 and CA3 in the hippocampi of KO mice. Furthermore, the corresponding differential decreases in the levels of SREBP-1 expression in the hippocampal subregions (particularly, a significant decrease in the level in the CA3) were detected by immunofluorescence. 
  • 762
  • 12 Jul 2021
Topic Review
GABAergic and Glycinergic Network
In the spinal cord, there are three types of inhibitory neurons and terminals: GABAergic, GABA/glycine coreleasing, and glycinergic. These neurons and terminals are arranged in the spinal cord neural circuit and are involved in many vital roles, such as regulating somatic sense, locomotive movement, and respiratory rhythms.
  • 762
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Brain Aging in Pets
Neuroinflammation is considered a highly preserved physiological defensive process, triggered by various insults that can reach the brain, aimed at restoring homeostasis. It allows the elimination of the underlying cause, repair injured tissue, and restore normal functions. However, under some circumstances, neuroinflammation can also have detrimental consequences.
  • 761
  • 18 Sep 2021
Topic Review
The Clinical Definitions of Treatment-Resistant Depression
Treatment-resistant depression is a pleomorphic phenomenon occurring in 30% of patients with depression. The chance to achieve remission decreases with every subsequent episode. It constitutes a significant part of the global disease burden, causes increased morbidity and mortality, and is associated with poor quality of life. It involves multiple difficult-to-treat episodes, with increasing resistance over time. The official consensus on the definition of TRD (treatment-resistant depression) is still lacking, but based on systematic analysis, the most used definition is a lack of response after two to three adequate antidepressant treatment trials, irrespective of the drug class, plus an adequate trial of psychotherapy.
  • 761
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
The Blood–Brain Barrier and the Gut–Brain Axis
A fundamental characteristic of living organisms is their ability to separate the internal and external environments, a function achieved in large part through the different physiological barrier systems and their component junctional molecules. Barrier integrity is subject to multiple influences, but one that has received comparatively little attention is the role of the commensal microbiota. These microbes, which represent approximately 50% of the cells in the human body, are increasingly recognized as powerful physiological modulators in other systems, but their role in regulating barrier function is only beginning to be addressed. 
  • 761
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Alzheimer’s Disease Genetic Susceptibility
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Although the research over the last decades has provided new insight into AD pathophysiology, there is currently no cure for the disease. AD is often only diagnosed once the symptoms have become prominent, particularly in the late-onset (sporadic) form of AD. Consequently, it is essential to further new avenues for early diagnosis. With advances in genomic analysis and a lower cost of use, the exploration of genetic markers alongside RNA molecules can offer a key avenue for early diagnosis.
  • 760
  • 14 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Orexin in REM Sleep
Orexin plays a significant role in the modulation of REM sleep, as well as in the regulation of appetite and feeding. There is evidence on the role of orexin in the modulation of sleep and wakefulness and highlights that orexin should be considered essentially as a neurotransmitter inhibiting REM sleep and, to a lesser extent, a wake promoting agent. Subsequently, the relationship between orexin, REM sleep, and appetite regulation is examined in detail, shedding light on their interconnected nature in both physiological conditions and diseases (such as narcolepsy, sleep-related eating disorder, idiopathic hypersomnia, and night eating syndrome).
  • 758
  • 01 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Multisensory Integration in Caenorhabditis elegans
Multisensory integration refers to sensory inputs from different sensory modalities being processed simultaneously to produce a unitary output. Surrounded by stimuli from multiple modalities, animals utilize multisensory integration to form a coherent and robust representation of the complex environment. Many interesting paradigms of multisensory integration have been characterized in C. elegans, for which input convergence occurs at the sensory neuron or the interneuron level.
  • 757
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Role of Immune Response in Hereditary Transthyretin Amyloidosis
Hereditary transthyretin (ATTRv) amyloidosis with polyneuropathy, also known as familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), represents a progressive, heterogeneous, severe, and multisystemic disease caused by pathogenic variants in the TTR gene. This autosomal-dominant neurogenetic disorder has an adult onset with variable penetrance and an inconstant phenotype, even among subjects carrying the same mutation. Historically, ATTRv amyloidosis has been viewed as a non-inflammatory disease, mainly due to the absence of any mononuclear cell infiltration in ex vivo tissues; nevertheless, a role of inflammation in its pathogenesis has been highlighted. The immune response may be involved in the development and progression of the disease. Fibrillary TTR species bind to the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), probably activating the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway. Moreover, peripheral blood levels of several cytokines, including interferon (IFN)-gamma, IFN-alpha, IL-6, IL-7, and IL-33, are altered in the course of the disease.
  • 756
  • 19 Oct 2023
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