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Topic Review
The Structure and Function of Integrins
Integrins are heterodimeric transmembrane proteins that mediate adhesive connections between cells and their surroundings, including surrounding cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). They modulate tissue mechanics and regulate intracellular signaling, including cell generation, survival, proliferation, and differentiation, and the up-regulation of integrins in tumor cells has been confirmed to be associated with tumor development, invasion, angiogenesis, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. Thus, integrins are expected to be an effective target to improve the efficacy of tumor therapy. A variety of integrin-targeting nanodrugs have been developed to improve the distribution and penetration of drugs in tumors, thereby, improving the efficiency of clinical tumor diagnosis and treatment. 
  • 2.7K
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
ZIP Code Differences Across the World Explained
Overall, postal codes are more than just a series of letters and numbers. They are a vital part of the global postal system. They make it possible for mail to travel across cities, countries, and continents. The differences in postal codes around the world reflect the unique geography, population density, and organizational needs of each country. By understanding these differences, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity of the global postal system and the role postal codes play in keeping it running smoothly.
  • 2.7K
  • 31 Oct 2024
Topic Review
Bioluminescent System in Dinoflagellates
The mechanisms underlying the bioluminescent phenomenon have been well characterized in dinoflagellates; however, there are still some aspects that remain an enigma. Such is the case of the presence and diversity of the luciferin-binding protein (LBP), as well as the synthesis process of luciferin. We carry out a review of the literature in relation to the molecular players responsible for bioluminescence in dinoflagellates, with particular interest in P. lunula.
  • 2.7K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Equatorial Coordinate System
The equatorial coordinate system is a celestial coordinate system widely used to specify the positions of celestial objects. It may be implemented in spherical or rectangular coordinates, both defined by an origin at the centre of Earth, a fundamental plane consisting of the projection of Earth's equator onto the celestial sphere (forming the celestial equator), a primary direction towards the vernal equinox, and a right-handed convention. The origin at the centre of Earth means the coordinates are geocentric, that is, as seen from the centre of Earth as if it were transparent. The fundamental plane and the primary direction mean that the coordinate system, while aligned with Earth's equator and pole, does not rotate with the Earth, but remains relatively fixed against the background stars. A right-handed convention means that coordinates increase northward from and eastward around the fundamental plane.
  • 2.7K
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Applications of Liquid Biopsy in Colorectal Cancer Screening
Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents the third most prevalent cancer worldwide and a leading cause of mortality among the population of western countries. However, CRC is frequently a preventable malignancy due to various screening tests being available. While failing to obtain real-time data, current screening methods (either endoscopic or stool-based tests) also require disagreeable preparation protocols and tissue sampling through invasive procedures, rendering adherence to CRC screening programs suboptimal. In this context, the necessity for novel, less invasive biomarkers able to identify and assess cancer at an early stage is evident. Liquid biopsy comes as a promising minimally invasive diagnostic tool, able to provide comprehensive information on tumor heterogeneity and dynamics during carcinogenesis.
  • 2.7K
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2008), 2nd ed., is an eight-volume reference work on economics, edited by Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume and published by Palgrave Macmillan. It runs to 7,680 pages and 5.8 million words. It includes 1,844 articles, of which 1057 are new articles and, from the earlier edition, 80 "classic" essays, 157 revised articles, and 550 edited articles. It is the product of 1,506 contributors, 25 of them Nobel Laureates in Economics. Articles are classified according to Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) classification codes. The New Palgrave is also available in a hyperlinked online version. Article information by abstract, outline, and keywords is available without subscription. These are accessed by "Go to" or "Quick" searches or alphabetical article links by first letter, see Articles A-Z. Refined search by using JEL classification code, article elements, Boolean operators, or wildcards is available, see Advanced search. Online content is added to the 2008 edition from quarterly updates links, see Online Updates. The first edition was titled The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics (1987), edited by John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman and published in four volumes. It is discussed in a section below. Access to full-text articles for both editions and post-2008 updates is available online by subscription, whether of an organization, a person, or a person through an organization.
  • 2.7K
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
3D Cell Culture
A 3D cell culture is an artificially created environment in which biological cells are permitted to grow or interact with their surroundings in all three dimensions. Unlike 2D environments (e.g. a Petri dish), a 3D cell culture allows cells in vitro to grow in all directions, similar to how they would in vivo. These three-dimensional cultures are usually grown in bioreactors, small capsules in which the cells can grow into spheroids, or 3D cell colonies. Approximately 300 spheroids are usually cultured per bioreactor.
  • 2.7K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Timing Sequence and Mechanism of Endocrine Organs Aging
The endocrine glands are one of the most important organs in the context of aging. Failure of the endocrine glands lead to an abnormal hormonal environment, which in turn leads to many age-related diseases. The aging of endocrine glands is closely linked to oxidative stress, cellular autophagy, genetic damage, and hormone secretion. The first endocrine organ to undergo aging is the pineal gland, at around 6 years old. This is followed in order by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, gonads, pancreatic islets, and thyroid gland.
  • 2.7K
  • 26 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Prognathodon
Prognathodon is an extinct genus of marine lizard belonging to the mosasaur family. It is classified as part of the Mosasaurinae subfamily, alongside genera like Mosasaurus and Clidastes. Prognathodon has been recovered from deposits ranging in age from the Campanian to the Maastrichtian in the Middle East, Europe, New Zealand, and North America. Prognathodon means "forejaw tooth", which originates from the Latin pro- ("earlier" or "prior"), Greek gnathos ("jaw") and odṓn ("tooth"). Twelve nominal species of Prognathodon are recognised, from North America, northern and western Africa, the Middle East, western Europe and New Zealand. Due to the sometimes clear differences between them and the incomplete nature of many of the specimens, the systematics of the genus and which species should properly be considered Prognathodon is controversial. Some species have been assigned to other genera, such as Dollosaurus and Brachysaurana, but this has also been questioned. Prognathodon is known for its massively built jaws and teeth. Its distinct feeding adaptations have generated much interest in its ecology ever since its discovery, though direct evidence of its diet, such as gastric residues, is rare.
  • 2.7K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Impact of Drought in Plant-Metabolism
       Plants are often exposed to unfavorable environmental conditions, for instance abiotic stresses, which dramatically alter distribution of plant species among ecological niches and limit the yields of crop species. Among these, drought stress is one of the most impacting factors which alter seriously the plant physiology, finally leading to the decline of the crop productivity. Drought stress causes in plants a set of morpho-anatomical, physiological and biochemical changes, mainly addressed to limit the loss of water by transpiration with the attempt to increase the plant water use efficiency. The stomata closure, one of the first consistent reactions observed under drought, results in a series of consequent physiological/biochemical adjustments aimed at balancing the photosynthetic process as well as at enhancing the plant defense barriers against drought-promoted stress (e.g., stimulation of antioxidant systems, accumulation of osmolytes and stimulation of aquaporin synthesis), all representing an attempt by the plant to overcome the unfavorable period of limited water availability. In view of the severe changes in water availability imposed by climate change factors and considering the increasing human population, it is therefore of outmost importance to highlight: (i) how plants react to drought; (ii) the mechanisms of tolerance exhibited by some species/cultivars; and (iii) the techniques aimed at increasing the tolerance of crop species against limited water availability. All these aspects are necessary to respond to the continuously increasing demand for food, which unfortunately parallels the loss of arable land due to changes in rainfall dynamics and prolonged period of drought provoked by climate change factors. This review summarizes the most updated findings on the impact of drought stress on plant morphological, biochemical and physiological features and highlights plant mechanisms of tolerance which could be exploited to increase the plant capability to survive under limited water availability. In addition, possible applicative strategies to help the plant in counteracting unfavorable drought periods are also discussed.
  • 2.7K
  • 24 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Lipocalin-2
Lipocalin-2 (LCN2), which is a part of the lipocalin transport protein family, is a protein formally known for its role in iron transport and in inflammatory response.
  • 2.7K
  • 27 May 2021
Topic Review
Alcoholic Liver Disease
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a globally prevalent chronic liver disease caused by chronic or binge consumption of alcohol. Metabolites and byproducts generated during alcohol metabolism cause liver damage, leading to ALD via several mechanisms, such as impairing lipid metabolism, intensifying inflammatory reactions, and inducing fibrosis.
  • 2.7K
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Calcium and Inflammation
Burn injury serves as an example of a condition with a robust systemic inflammatory response. The elevation of circulating interleukins (IL)-1β and -6 in children and adolescents with severe burn injury upregulates the parathyroid calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), resulting in hypocalcemic hypoparathyroidism accompanied by urinary calcium wasting. This effect protects the body from the hypercalcemia that results from bone resorption, liberating calcium into the circulation. Extracellular calcium can exacerbate and prolong the inflammatory response by stimulating mononuclear cell chemokine production as well as the NLRP3 inflammasome of the innate immune system, resulting in increased IL-1 production by monocytes and macrophages. Interestingly, the CaSR upregulation in response to inflammatory cytokines disappears with age, potentially trapping calcium from bone resorption in the circulation, allowing it to contribute to increased inflammation and possibly increased calcium deposition in small arteries, such as the coronaries, as conditions with increased chronic inflammation, such as spinal cord injury, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis have an incidence of cardiovascular disease and coronary artery calcium deposition significantly higher than the unaffected age-matched population. 
  • 2.7K
  • 08 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Expert System and Decision Support System
Electrocardiography (ECG) is one of the most widely used recordings in clinical medicine. ECG deals with the recording of electrical activity that is generated by the heart through the surface of the body. The electrical activity generated by the heart is measured using electrodes that are attached to the body surface. The use of ECG in the diagnosis and management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been in existence for over a decade, and research in this domain has recently attracted large attention. Along this line, an expert system (ES) and decision support system (DSS) have been developed for ECG interpretation and diagnosis.
  • 2.7K
  • 13 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Musical Stimulation on Placental Programming of Preterm Infants
The fetal environment is modulated by the placenta, which integrates and transduces information from the maternal environment to the fetal developmental program and adapts rapidly to changes through epigenetic mechanisms that respond to internal (hereditary) and external (environmental and social) signals. Consequently, the fetus corrects the trajectory of own development. During the last trimester of gestation, plasticity shapes the fetal brain, and prematurity can alter the typical developmental trajectories. Prenatal music stimulation had positive effects on fetus, newborn, and pregnant mother while post-natal exposure affected the neurodevelopment of the preterm infants and parental interaction.
  • 2.7K
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Colorectal Cancer Screening and Diagnostics
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent and potentially fatal disease categorized based on its high incidences and mortality rates, which raised the need for effective diagnostic strategies for the early detection and management of CRC. While there are several conventional cancer diagnostics available, they have certain limitations that hinder their effectiveness. 
  • 2.7K
  • 17 Oct 2023
Topic Review
High-Throughput Sequencing in Aptamer selection
Aptamers, short single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules capable of specific binding to a target of interest, are gaining in research interest due to their versatile application potential as analytical, diagnostic, and therapeutics agents.
  • 2.7K
  • 05 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Green Bioprocessing of Algae-Derived Biopolymers
Algae-based biopolymers may be modified by adding additives, plasticizers, and compatibilizers to enhance the intermolecular force of contact between components, and boost material strength, flexibility, and durability. Moreover, biopolymers are widely used in cosmetics, medicines, and food packaging. Furthermore, algal biopolymer could be used as a food additive due to its high nutritional content.
  • 2.7K
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
The Cult of the Child
The concept of the “cult of the child” highlights a radical change in child representation. Having been neglected and even disrespected for centuries, children are now valued, and their interests are placed above all others. This change in views of children, reflected in changes in laws, institutions and practices, has also spread to two pillars of our democratic societies, the family and the school, with a number of consequences for parents, teachers and children.
  • 2.7K
  • 30 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Slack
Slack is a messaging program designed specifically for the office, but has also been adopted for personal use. Developed by the Canadian software company Slack Technologies, and now owned by Salesforce, Slack offers many IRC-style features, including persistent chat rooms (channels) organized by topic, private groups, and direct messaging. In addition to these online communication features, Slack integrates with other software.
  • 2.7K
  • 20 Oct 2022
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