Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Subject:
All Disciplines Arts & Humanities Biology & Life Sciences Business & Economics Chemistry & Materials Science Computer Science & Mathematics Engineering Environmental & Earth Sciences Medicine & Pharmacology Physical Sciences Public Health & Healthcare Social Sciences
Sort by:
Most Viewed Latest Alphabetical (A-Z) Alphabetical (Z-A)
Filter:
All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review
Salvage Surgery
The representative surgical intervention for unresectable stage III/IV NSCLC is salvage surgery, which refers to surgical treatment for local residual/recurrent lesions after definitive non-surgical treatment. Surgical intervention is also used for an oligometastatic stage IV NSCLC. 
  • 3.0K
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
MEMS Acoustic Emission Sensors
Micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) acoustic emission (AE) sensors are designed to detect active defects in materials with the transduction mechanisms of piezoresistivity, capacitance or piezoelectricity. The majority of MEMS AE sensors are designed as resonators to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. The fundamental design variables of MEMS AE sensors include resonant frequency, bandwidth/quality factor and sensitivity. Micromachining methods have the flexibility to tune the sensor frequency to a particular range, which is important, as the frequency of AE signal depends on defect modes, constitutive properties and structural composition.
  • 3.0K
  • 22 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Tannylated Calcium Carbonate Materials
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)-based materials have received notable attention for biomedical applications owing to their safety and beneficial characteristics, such as pH sensitivity, carbon dioxide (CO2) gas generation, and antacid properties. Herein, to additionally incorporate antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions, we prepared tannylated CaCO3 (TA-CaCO3) materials using a simple reaction between tannic acid (TA), calcium (Ca2+), and carbonate (CO32−) ions. TA-CaCO3 synthesized at a molar ratio of 1:75 (TA:calcium chloride (CaCl2)/sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)) showed 3–6 μm particles, comprising small nanoparticles in a size range of 17–41 nm. The TA-CaCO3 materials could efficiently neutralize the acid solution and scavenge free radicals. 
  • 3.0K
  • 12 May 2021
Topic Review
Innovations and Emerging Cooling Technologies for Greenhouses
The climate control inside the greenhouse constitutes an efficient methodology for maintaining a satisfactory environment that fulfills the requirements of high-yield crops and reduced energy and water resource consumption. In hot climates, the cooling systems, which are assisted by an effective control technique, constitute a suitable path for maintaining an appropriate climate inside the greenhouse, where the required temperature and humidity distribution is maintained.
  • 3.0K
  • 11 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Online Hate Speech
Online hate speech is a type of speech that takes place online with the purpose of attacking a person or a group based on their race, religion, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, disability, or gender. Online hate speech is the expression of conflicts between different groups within and across societies. Online hate speech is a vivid example of how the Internet brings both opportunities and challenges regarding the freedom of expression and speech while also defending human dignity. Multilateral treaties such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) have sought to define its contours. Multi-stakeholders processes (e.g. the Rabat Plan of Action) have tried to bring greater clarity and suggested mechanisms to identify hateful messages. Yet, hate speech is still a generic term in everyday discourse, mixing concrete threats to individuals and/or groups with cases in which people may be simply venting their anger against authority. Internet intermediaries—organizations that mediate online communication such as Facebook, Twitter, and Google—have advanced their own definitions of hate speech that bind users to a set of rules and allow companies to limit certain forms of expression. National and regional bodies have sought to promote understandings of the term that are more rooted in local traditions. The Internet's speed and reach makes it difficult for governments to enforce national legislation in the virtual world. Social media is a private space for public expression, which makes it difficult for regulators. Some of the companies owning these spaces have become more responsive towards tackling the problem of hate speech online. Politicians, activists, and academics discuss the character of online hate speech and its relation to offline speech and action, but the debates tend to be removed from systematic empirical evidence. The character of perceived hate speech and its possible consequences has led to placing much emphasis on the solutions to the problem and on how they should be grounded in international human rights norms. Yet this very focus has also limited deeper attempts to understand the causes underlying the phenomenon and the dynamics through which certain types of content emerge, diffuse and lead—or not—to actual discrimination, hostility or violence. Online hate speech has been on the rise since the start of 2020, with COVID-19 tensions, Anti-Asian rhetoric, ongoing racial injustice, mass civil unrest, violence, and the 2020 Presidential Election. Yet, many instances of hate speech have been refuted with the First Amendment, which allows online hate speech to continue.
  • 3.0K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Learning Disability
Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty (British English) is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a lack of ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while difficulties such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties". While learning disability and learning disorder are often used interchangeably, they differ in many ways. Disorder refers to significant learning problems in an academic area. These problems, however, are not enough to warrant an official diagnosis. Learning disability, on the other hand, is an official clinical diagnosis, whereby the individual meets certain criteria, as determined by a professional (such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, speech language pathologist, or pediatrician). The difference is in degree, frequency, and intensity of reported symptoms and problems, and thus the two should not be confused. When the term "learning disorder" is used, it describes a group of disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types of learning disorders include reading (dyslexia), arithmetic (dyscalculia) and writing (dysgraphia). The unknown factor is the disorder that affects the brain's ability to receive and process information. This disorder can make it problematic for a person to learn as quickly or in the same way as someone who is not affected by a learning disability. People with a learning disability have trouble performing specific types of skills or completing tasks if left to figure things out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways. Individuals with learning disabilities can face unique challenges that are often pervasive throughout the lifespan. Depending on the type and severity of the disability, interventions, and current technologies may be used to help the individual learn strategies that will foster future success. Some interventions can be quite simplistic, while others are intricate and complex. Current technologies may require student training to be effective classroom supports. Teachers, parents, and schools can create plans together that tailor intervention and accommodations to aid the individuals in successfully becoming independent learners. A multi-disciplinary team frequently helps to design the intervention and to coordinate the execution of the intervention with teachers and parents. This team frequently includes school psychologists, special educators, speech therapists (pathologists), occupational therapists, psychologists, ESL teachers, literacy coaches, and/or reading specialists.
  • 3.0K
  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Virtual Reality and Metacognition for Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are defined as a set of neurodevelopmental disorders of biological basis that induce cognitive abnormalities as well as symptoms related to emotional and behavioral disorders. Metacognition is defined by Drigas and Mitsea as the “set of regulatory meta-abilities and meta-skills that are consciously applied aiming at the smooth operation of the cognitive & psychophysiological mechanism as a means of achieving functional capability, self-efficacy, independent living & life satisfaction. Virtual reality (VR) is commonly regarded as a technology that induces virtual immersion in a digital world via the use of a computerized graphic simulation that allows users to immerse themselves in an interactive three-dimensional world brimming with various sensory and emotional experiences.
  • 3.0K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy
Thomas Hobbes’s moral and political philosophy is constructed around the basic premise of social and political order, explaining how humans should live in peace under a sovereign power so as to avoid conflict within the ‘state of nature’. Hobbes’s moral philosophy and political philosophy are significantly intertwined; his moral thought is based around ideas of human nature, which determine the interactions that make up his political philosophy.  Hobbes’s moral philosophy therefore provides justification for, and informs, the theories of sovereignty and the state of nature that underpin his political philosophy. In utilising methods of deductive reasoning and motion science, Hobbes examines human emotion, reason and knowledge to construct his ideas of human nature (moral philosophy). This methodology critically influences his politics, determining the interactions of conflict (in the state of nature) which necessitate the creation of a politically authoritative State to ensure the maintenance of peace and cooperation. This method is used and developed in works such as The Elements of Law (1640), De Cive (1642), Leviathan (1651) and Behemoth (1681).
  • 3.0K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Exosome Biogenesis
Exosomes are nanometer-sized vesicles released by different cells that are important in the normal functioning of the body. In cancer, exosomes have been found to promote tumor growth and metastasis by carrying functional biomolecules and acting on different target sites in the body. Understanding the mechanism by which cancers modulate exosome secretion is crucial to studying cancer biology and developing new therapeutic approaches.
  • 3.0K
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Exosomes
Exosomes are lipid bilayer particles released from cells into their surrounding environment. These vesicles are mediators of near and long-distance intercellular communication and affect various aspects of cell biology. In addition to their biological function, they play an increasingly important role both in diagnosis and as therapeutic agents.
  • 3.0K
  • 20 Jan 2021
Topic Review
2017 Catalan Independence Referendum
The Catalan independence referendum of 2017, also known by the numeronym 1-O (for "1 October") in Spanish media, was an independence referendum held on 1 October 2017 in the Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia, passed by the Parliament of Catalonia as the Law on the Referendum on Self-determination of Catalonia and called by the Generalitat de Catalunya. It was declared unconstitutional on 7 September 2017 and suspended by the Constitutional Court of Spain after a request from the Spanish government, who declared it a breach of the Spanish Constitution. Additionally, in early September the High Court of Justice of Catalonia had issued orders to the police to try to prevent it, including the detention of various persons responsible for its preparation. Due to alleged irregularities during the voting process as well as to the use of force by the National Police Corps and Civil Guard, international observers invited by the Generalitat declared that the referendum failed to meet the minimum international standards for elections. The referendum was approved by the Catalan parliament in a session in which only nationalist parliamentarians participated on 6 September 2017 along with the Law of juridical transition and foundation of the Republic of Catalonia the following day 7 September, which stated that independence would be binding with a simple majority, without requiring a minimum turnout. After being suspended, the law was finally declared void on 17 October, being also unconstitutional according to the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia which requires a two-thirds majority, 90 seats, in the Catalan parliament for any change to Catalonia's status. The referendum question, which voters answered with "Yes" or "No", was "Do you want Catalonia to become an independent state in the form of a republic?". The "Yes" side won, with 2,044,038 (92.01%) voting for independence and 177,547 (7.99%) voting against, on a turnout of 43.03%. The Catalan government estimated that up to 770,000 votes were not cast due to polling stations being closed off during the police crackdown, although the "universal census" system introduced earlier in the day allowed electors to vote at any given polling station. Catalan government officials have argued that the turnout would have been higher were it not for Spanish and Catalan police suppression of the vote. On the other hand, most voters who did not support Catalan independence did not turn out, as the constitutional political parties asked citizens not to participate in what they considered an illegal referendum. Additionally, numerous cases of voters casting their votes several times or with lack of identification were reported, and the counting process and the revision of the census were not performed with quality standards ensuring impartiality. In the days leading to the referendum, the High Court of Justice of Catalonia ordered police forces to impede the use of public premises for the imminent voting. However, on the day of the referendum, the inaction of part of the autonomous police force of Catalonia, the Mossos d'Esquadra, allowed many polling stations to open. The National Police Corps and the Guardia Civil intervened and raided several polling stations after they opened. 893 civilians and 111 agents of the National Police and the Guardia Civil were reported to have been injured. According to various sources these previously reported figures may have been exaggerated. According to the judge from Barcelona who is currently investigating the accusations of police violence, there were 218 persons injured on that day in the city of Barcelona alone, 20 of whom were agents. According to the official final report by the Catalan Health Service (CatSalut) of the Generalitat 1066 civilians, 11 agents of the National Police and the Guardia Civil and 1 agent of the regional police, the Mossos d'Esquadra, were injured. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, urged the Spanish government to prove all acts of violence that took place to prevent the referendum. The police action also received criticism from Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch which defined it as an "excessive and unnecessary use of force". Spanish Supreme Court judge Pablo Llarena stated Puigdemont ignored the repeated warnings he received about the escalation of violence if the referendum was held. Mossos d'Esquadra are being investigated for disobedience, for allegedly not having complied with the orders of the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. Including Josep Lluís Trapero Álvarez, the Mossos d'Esquadra major, who is being investigated for sedition by the Spanish National Court. Mossos d'Esquadra deny those accusations and allege they obeyed the orders but applied the principle of proportionality, which is required by Spanish law in all police operations.
  • 3.0K
  • 07 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely. It is defined in contrast to short-term and working memory, which persist for only about 18 to 30 seconds. Long-term memory is commonly labelled as explicit memory (declarative), as well as episodic memory, semantic memory, autobiographical memory, and implicit memory (procedural memory).
  • 3.0K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Sources of Arsenic in the Aquatic Environment
Arsenic is an element that is distributed globally and is abundant in the Earth’s crust (20th most abundant element) and seawater (14th most abundant element). It is classified as a metalloid and exhibits both metallic and non-metallic properties. The high solubility and mobility of arsenic in aquatic environments affects its global cycling. Furthermore, the biological processes in the aquatic environment are discussed, especially the possible microbe-mediated reactions of arsenic in sediments. In addition, various environmental factors, such as redox conditions, pH, and salinity, which influence the transformation of arsenic species.
  • 3.0K
  • 04 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Heat Recovery from Wastewater
Wastewater from domestic, industrial and commercial developments maintains considerable amounts of thermal energy after discharging into the sewer system. 
  • 3.0K
  • 29 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Cyanidin-3-Glucoside
Cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G) is a well-known natural anthocyanin and possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The catabolism of C3G in the gastrointestinal tract could produce bioactive phenolic metabolites, such as protocatechuic acid, phloroglucinaldehyde, vanillic acid, and ferulic acid, which enhance C3G bioavailability and contribute to both mucosal barrier and microbiota.
  • 3.0K
  • 02 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Aqueous Soluble Drug
The low water solubility of pharmacoactive molecules limits their pharmacological potential, but the solubility parameter cannot compromise, and so different approaches are employed to enhance their bioavailability. Pharmaceutically active molecules with low solubility convey a higher risk of failure for drug innovation and development. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and several other parameters, such as drug distribution, protein binding and absorption, are majorly affected by their solubility.
  • 3.0K
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Green Taxes in Africa
Environmental or green taxation has been increasingly seen as a productive economic instrument to generate incentives to stimulate more environmentally friendly consumption and production choices and trends. Growing attention to environmental challenges such as the lack of optimum, effective, and responsible usage of natural resources, health concerns from the use of some energy resources, environmental degradation, and climate change have driven the implementation of green taxes. These taxes have been used by various countries, regions and continents on variegated areas and driven by an array of motives. The African continent has also put in place environmental taxes as evidenced in various countries.
  • 3.0K
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Energy Harvesting from Fluid Flow Using Piezoelectric Materials
The use of piezoelectric-energy harvesting has grown in popularity during the previous two decades. Several implantable energy-harvesting technologies are being developed by scientists to power portable gadgets and medical equipment. Thanks to new technologies, researchers have been able to fabricate highly flexible piezoelectric devices and electronics, paving the way for the development of biocompatible and long-lasting harvesters. 
  • 3.0K
  • 16 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Silanes
Silanes, as organic-inorganic hybrid modifiers of hyperbranched polymer (HBP), are of great interest as they resulted in a tremendous improvement in HBP properties like increasing thermal, mechanical and electrical properties compared to that of organic-only moieties. The basic components of silanes are monomeric silicon (Si) compounds with four substituent groups attached to the Si atom, which can be of any combination of reactive or non-reactive inorganic or organic groups, which are the fundamental building blocks of silanes.
  • 3.0K
  • 14 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Exercise and Cartilage Regeneration Therapy
In response to exercise, articular chondrocytes increase their production of glycosaminoglycans, bone morphogenic proteins, and anti-inflammatory cytokines and decrease their production of proinflammatory cytokines and matrix-degrading metalloproteinases. These changes are associated with improvements in cartilage organization and reductions in cartilage degeneration. Studies in humans indicate that exercise enhances joint recruitment of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells and upregulates their expression of osteogenic and chondrogenic genes, osteogenic microRNAs, and osteogenic growth factors. Rodent experiments demonstrate that exercise enhances the osteogenic potential of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells while diminishing their adipogenic potential, and that exercise done after stem cell implantation may benefit stem cell transplant viability. Physical exercise also exerts a beneficial effect on the skeletal system by decreasing immune cell production of osteoclastogenic cytokines interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ, while increasing their production of antiosteoclastogenic cytokines interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β.
  • 3.0K
  • 28 Jan 2021
  • Page
  • of
  • 2727
Featured Entry Collections
>>

Featured Reprints

>>
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Encyclopedia of Engineering
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography
Academic Video Service
Feedback