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HandWiki. Online Hate Speech. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/31964 (accessed on 03 October 2026).
HandWiki. Online Hate Speech. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/31964. Accessed October 03, 2026.
HandWiki. "Online Hate Speech" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/31964 (accessed October 03, 2026).
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Online Hate Speech
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The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Religion:Online_hate_speech

Online hate speech is a type of speech that takes place online with the purpose of attacking a person or a group based on their race, religion, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, disability, or gender. Online hate speech is the expression of conflicts between different groups within and across societies. Online hate speech is a vivid example of how the Internet brings both opportunities and challenges regarding the freedom of expression and speech while also defending human dignity. Multilateral treaties such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) have sought to define its contours. Multi-stakeholders processes (e.g. the Rabat Plan of Action) have tried to bring greater clarity and suggested mechanisms to identify hateful messages. Yet, hate speech is still a generic term in everyday discourse, mixing concrete threats to individuals and/or groups with cases in which people may be simply venting their anger against authority. Internet intermediaries—organizations that mediate online communication such as Facebook, Twitter, and Google—have advanced their own definitions of hate speech that bind users to a set of rules and allow companies to limit certain forms of expression. National and regional bodies have sought to promote understandings of the term that are more rooted in local traditions. The Internet's speed and reach makes it difficult for governments to enforce national legislation in the virtual world. Social media is a private space for public expression, which makes it difficult for regulators. Some of the companies owning these spaces have become more responsive towards tackling the problem of hate speech online. Politicians, activists, and academics discuss the character of online hate speech and its relation to offline speech and action, but the debates tend to be removed from systematic empirical evidence. The character of perceived hate speech and its possible consequences has led to placing much emphasis on the solutions to the problem and on how they should be grounded in international human rights norms. Yet this very focus has also limited deeper attempts to understand the causes underlying the phenomenon and the dynamics through which certain types of content emerge, diffuse and lead—or not—to actual discrimination, hostility or violence. Online hate speech has been on the rise since the start of 2020, with COVID-19 tensions, Anti-Asian rhetoric, ongoing racial injustice, mass civil unrest, violence, and the 2020 Presidential Election. Yet, many instances of hate speech have been refuted with the First Amendment, which allows online hate speech to continue.

online hate online communication national legislation

References

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  2. Waldron, Jeremy (2012). The Harm in Hate Speech. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06589-5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jbrjd. 
  3. Izsak, Rita (2015). Report of the Special Rapporteur on minority issues, Rita Izsák. Human Rights Council. 
  4. See Council of Europe, "Mapping study on projects against hate speech online", 15 April 2012. See also interviews: Christine Chen, Senior Manager for Public Policy, Google, 2 March 2015; Monika Bickert, Head of Global Policy Management, Facebook, 14 January 2015
  5. See HateBase, Hate speech statistics, http://www.hatebase.org/popular
  6. Interview: Andre Oboler, CEO, Online Hate Prevention Institute, 31 October 2014.
  7. Mathew, Binny; Dutt, Ritam; Goyal, Pawan; Mukherjee, Animesh. "Spread of hate speech in online social media". ACM WebSci 2019. Boston, MA, USA: ACM. 
  8. Citron, Danielle Keats; Norton, Helen L. (2011). "Intermediaries and Hate Speech: Fostering Digital Citizenship for Our Information Age". Boston University Law Review (Rochester, NY) 91. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1764004. 
  9. Interview: Drew Boyd, Director of Operations, The Sentinel Project for Genocide Prevention, 24 October 2014.
  10. Phillips, Whitney (2015). This Is Why We Can't Have Nice Things: Mapping the Relationship between Online Trolling and Mainstream Culture. MIT Press. 
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  22. Leo, Leonard A.; Gaer, Felice D.; Cassidy, Elizabeth K. (2011). "Protecting Religions from Defamation: A Threat to Universal Human Rights Standards". Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 34: 769. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hjlpp34&id=779&div=&collection=. 
  23. Human Rights Committee. General Comment no. 11, Article 20: Prohibition of Propaganda for War and Inciting National, Racial or Religious Hatred, 29 July 1983, para. 2. In 2011, The Committee elucidated its views on the relationship of Article 19 and 20 when it reaffirmed that the provisions complement each other and that Article 20 "may be considered as lex specialis with regard to Article 19". Human Rights Committee. General Comment no. 34, Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, CCPR/C/GC/34, 12 September 2011, paras. 48-52.
  24. Article 19 (3) if the ICCPR.
  25. Even the Human Rights Committee, which has decided on cases concerning Article 20, has avoided providing a definition of incitement to hatred. Human Rights Council. Incitement to Racial and Religious Hatred and the Promotion of Tolerance: Report of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/2/6, 20 September 2006, para. 36.
  26. Faurisson v. France, C. Individual opinion by Elizabeth Evatt and David Kretzmer, co-signed by Eckart Klein (concurring), para. 4.
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  28. Report of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/2/6, para. 39;
  29. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, General Recommendation 29, Discrimination Based on Descent (Sixty-first session, 2002), U.N. Doc. A/57/18 at 111 (2002), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N.Doc. HRI\GEN\1\Rev.6 at 223 (2003), paras. r, s and t
  30. Article 2 of the CEDAW.
  31. General recommendation No. 28 on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Para. 19
  32. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, 20 October 2000, para. 7.
  33. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85, 13 November 1985, para. 39
  34. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85, 13 November 1985, para 39.
  35. Viljoen, Frans (2007). International Human Rights Law in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
  36. African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights. Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, 32nd Session, Banjul, 17–23 October 2002.
  37. Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Sixth OIC Observatory Report on Islamophobia, Presented to the 40th Council of Foreign Ministers, Conakry, Republic of Guinea, December 2013, p 31.
  38. League of Arab States, Arab Charter on Human Rights, 22 May 2004, entered into force 15 March 2008, para. 32 (1)
  39. League of Arab States, Arab Charter on Human Rights, 22 May 2004, entered into force 15 March 2008, para. 32 (2).
  40. Article 7 of the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration.
  41. Article 54 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
  42. Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
  43. Handyside v. the United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, para. 49. More cases of hate Speech under the European Court can be found at: http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Hate_speech_ENG.pdf 49
  44. ECRI General Policy Recommendation No. 6, On Combating the Dissemination of Racist, Xenophobic and Antisemitic Material via the Internet, adopted on 15 December 2000.
  45. Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime, 23 November 2001, paras 31–34.
  46. Council of Europe, Additional Protocol to the Convention on cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems, 28 January 2003, art 5 para 1.
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  54. Nakamura, Lisa (2002). Cybertypes: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet. New York: Routledge. 
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  78. Carlsen, Audrey. "What Does Facebook Consider Hate Speech? Take Our Quiz". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/13/technology/facebook-hate-speech-quiz.html. 
  79. "Community Standards: Objectionable Content". https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objectionable_content/. 
  80. Mills, Chris. "This is what Facebook won't let you post". http://bgr.com/2018/04/24/facebook-community-standards-content-policy-nudity-sexual-content-hate-speech/. 
  81. "Community Guidelines: Objectionable Content". https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objectionable_content/hate_speech/. 
  82. "Facebook Bans White Nationalism And Separatism Content From Its Platforms" (in en). https://www.npr.org/2019/03/27/707258353/facebook-bans-white-nationalism-and-separatism-content-from-its-platforms. 
  83. "Facebook Bans Alex Jones, Louis Farrakhan And Other 'Dangerous' Individuals" (in en). https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/719897599/facebook-bans-alex-jones-louis-farrakhan-and-other-dangerous-individuals. 
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  85. "Content Policies". https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/apps/hh184842(v=vs.105).aspx. 
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  88. Simpson, Robert Mark (2019-02-01). "'Won't Somebody Please Think of the Children?' Hate Speech, Harm, and Childhood" (in en). Law and Philosophy 38 (1): 79–108. doi:10.1007/s10982-018-9339-3. ISSN 1573-0522.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10982-018-9339-3
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  90. Osler, Audrey; Starkey, Hugh (2006). "Education for Democratic Citizenship: a review of research, policy and practice 1995-2005". Research Papers in Education 24 (4): 433–466. doi:10.1080/02671520600942438. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228396402. 
  91. Mathew, Binny; Saha, Punyajoy; Tharad, Hardik; Rajgaria, Shubham; Singhania, Prajwal; Goyal, Pawan; Mukherjee, Animesh. "Thou shalt not hate: Countering Online Hate Speech". ICWSM 2019. Munich, Germany: AAAI. 
  92. Mossberger, Karen; Tolbert, Caroline; McNeal, Ramona (2007). Digital Citizenship: The Internet, Society, and Participation. MIT Press. 
  93. Hoechsmann, Michael; Poyntz, Stuart (2012). Media Literacies: A Critical Introduction. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. 
  94. See Paris Declaration: Paris Declaration on MIL in the Digital Era. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-andinformation/resources/news-and-in-focus-articles/in-focus-articles/2014/paris-declaration-on-mediaand-information-literacy-adopted/
  95. The ‘No Hate Speech Movement' is a regional campaign that encompasses 50 countries far beyond the European Continent. Although the campaign has common goals and develops joint strategies, the particular projects and initiatives rune in every country are the responsibility of the National coordinators and subject to the capacity and resources in each country.
  96. Interview: Laura Geraghty, No Hate Speech Movement, 25 November 2014.
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