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Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicle-Based Therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) , comprising a variety of nano-scale vesicles ranging from 50 to 1000 nm in size, are released from all types of cells carrying a variety of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in a more protective manner than un-enveloped circulating biomolecules such as antibodies and cytokines from cellular DNases, RNases, proteases, and other degrading materials, due to the presence of the lipid bilayer membrane. EVs contribute to the dissemination and persistence of genetic material and proteins of SARS-CoV-2 due to the similarity in the entrance, budding, and mechanisms of biogenesis during infection. 
  • 1.1K
  • 12 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Dendritic Cells
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a unique myeloid cell lineage that play a central role in the priming of the adaptive immune response.  DCs are crucial sentinel cells able to recognize diverse tumor-associated antigens (TAA). Despite DCs critical “mentoring” role for T cells, single-agent DC-based therapies have been minimally successful and their combination with standard of care therapies and novel immunotherapies have shown limited improvement. The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) is likely the main reason for this reduced efficacy. The TME significantly shapes the phenotype and function of DCs rendering them dysfunctional and tolerogenic in orchestrating an effective anti-tumor response.
  • 1.1K
  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Gut Microbiota in Primary Immunodeficiencies
Inborn errors of immunity (IEI) are a group of disorders that are mostly caused by genetic mutations affecting immune host defense and immune regulation. Although IEI present with a wide spectrum of clinical features, in about one third of them various degrees of gastrointestinal (GI) involvement have been described and for some IEI the GI manifestations represent the main and peculiar clinical feature. The microbiome plays critical roles in the education and function of the host’s innate and adaptive immune system, and imbalances in microbiota-immunity interactions can contribute to intestinal pathogenesis. Microbial dysbiosis combined to the impairment of immunosurveillance and immune dysfunction in IEI, may favor mucosal permeability and lead to inflammation. Here we review how immune homeostasis between commensals and the host is established in the gut, and how these mechanisms can be disrupted in the context of primary immunodeficiencies. Additionally, we highlight key aspects of the first studies on gut microbiome in patients affected by IEI and discuss how gut microbiome could be harnessed as a therapeutic approach in these diseases.
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Autoimmune Gut Diseases and COVID-19 Vaccines
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic raised many challenges for all patients with chronic conditions and those with autoimmune diseases, both adults and children. Autoimmune diseases are characterized by hyperreactivity of the immune system and loss of immune tolerance, which damage and destroy healthy tissues, cells, and organs.
  • 1.1K
  • 26 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Circulating Tumor Cells in Metastatic Cascade
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a heterogeneous population of tumor cells that have shed from a tumor into the lymphatics and vasculature, ultimately disseminating into blood circulation. Circulating tumor cells are a key player in cancer metastasis, a multi-step and complex process that involves (1) local invasion of primary tumor cells into adjacent tissue; (2) intravasation (trans-endothelial migration into nearby blood vessels); (3) circulation (transient travel and survival in the circulatory system as CTCs); (4) extravasation; (5) colonization. To successfully metastasize, CTCs must evade immune surveillance at every step once they leave the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. On the other hand, immune cells can promote or inhibit tumorigenesis, depending on the cell type and context.
  • 1.1K
  • 04 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Cognitive Decline in Rheumatoid Arthritis
Cognitive decline refers to a deterioration of intellectual and learning abilities and related memory problems, and is often associated with behavioral alterations, which prevents sufferers from carrying out the most common daily activities, such as maintaining normal productive interpersonal relationships, communicating, and leading an autonomous life. Numerous studies have highlighted the association between cognitive decline and autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA is a chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease that involves systems and organs other than the bones and joints, with varying severity among patients.
  • 1.1K
  • 10 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Inflammation
Inflammation, a vital and intricately regulated biological response, defends the body against threats like pathogens and injuries. When balanced, it supports health, but disruption can lead to chronic inflammation and diseases like cardiovascular issues and cancer. This exploration delves into inflammation's mechanisms, involving lipid-derived mediators, proinflammatory cytokines, vasoactive mediators, hydrolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, transcription factors, and the complement system. Understanding these elements is crucial for targeted therapies against inflammation-related diseases. Researchers continually uncover innovative strategies to restore the balance between protective and pathological inflammation, offering hope to millions with chronic inflammatory conditions. Advancements promise more effective management, a brighter future, and improved lives.
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Cytokines and Chemokines in Cancer Cachexia
Cancer cachexia, a muscle-wasting syndrome, remains a serious public health concern worldwide, particularly as cancer rates rise. Treatment is endangered, and survival is reduced because this illness is commonly misdiagnosed and undertreated. Although weight loss is the most evident sign of cachexia, there are other early metabolic and inflammatory changes that occur before the most obvious symptoms appear. Cachexia-related inflammation is induced by a combination of factors, one of which is the release of inflammation-promoting chemicals by the tumor. Today, more scientists are beginning to believe that the development of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) related cachexia is similar to cancer-related cachexia. 
  • 1.1K
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
CAR T Cell Immune Therapy for Solid Tumors
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are genetically engineered T cells that recognize markers present on tumor cells and drive the degradation of the tumor itself. CAR T immunotherapy has obtained remarkable success in targeting a number of blood malignancies; however, its outcome is typically modest when applied to solid tumors, because of specific structural, biological, and metabolic aspects of the solid tumor environment. 
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
CAR T-Cells in the Treatment of Solid Tumors
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a newly designed adoptive immunotherapy that is able to target and further eliminate cancer cells by engaging with MHC-independent tumor-antigens. CAR T-cell therapy has exhibited conspicuous clinical efficacy in hematological malignancies, but more than half of patients will relapse.  
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Immune-Targeting Nanomaterials
Cancer immunotherapy is a treatment method in which the immune system is stimulated to communicate with the tumor at the tumor microenvironment (TME) to detect, target, and destroy the growth of the cancer cells or malignancy.
  • 1.1K
  • 30 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Antigenicity of the Brucella Cell Wall
The members of Brucella spp. as Gram-negative bacteria are characterized by their sandwich-structured cell envelopes composed of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-covered bacterial outer membrane and the inner cytoplasmic cell membrane with a thin peptidoglycan layer between them in the periplasmic space.
  • 1.1K
  • 23 May 2023
Topic Review
DIHS/DRESS
Drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome/drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DIHS/DRESS) is a severe type of adverse drug eruption associated with multiorgan involvement and the reactivation of human herpesvirus 6, which arises after prolonged exposure to a limited number of drugs. Severe complications, some of which are related to cytomegalovirus reactivation, can be fatal. DIHS/DRESS is distinct from other drug reactions, as it involves herpes virus reactivation and can lead to the subsequent development of autoimmune diseases. The current consensus on the pathogenesis of DIHS/DRESS is that it occurs as a result of complex interactions between several herpesviruses and comprehensive immune responses, including drug-specific immune responses and antiviral immune responses. Although our understanding of the pathophysiology of DIHS/DRESS has evolved considerably over the last decade, the precise pathomechanisms of this complex disease remain largely unknown. This entry describes the clinical features of DIHS/DRESS, including the associated complications and sequelae.
  • 1.1K
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
Resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 Blockade Immunotherapy
Immune checkpoint blockade targeting PD-1/PD-L1 has a promising therapeutic efficacy in different tumors, but a significant percentage of patients cannot benefit from this therapy due to primary and acquired resistance during treatment. Key mechanisms about modulating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, such as depletion of Tregs, IDO, or MDSCs, interfering suppressive cytokines and inhibiting alternative immune checkpoints, may enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the PD-1/PD-L1 blockade. 
  • 1.1K
  • 01 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Epidemiological and Clinical Factors Modulating COVID-19
Addressing factors modulating COVID-19 is crucial since abundant clinical evidence shows that outcomes are markedly heterogeneous between patients. This requires identifying the factors and understanding how they mechanistically influence COVID-19. While there is a multitude of factors modulating COVID-19. These modulating factors (MFs) were selected based on epidemiological and/or clinical studies to be representative of different categories: intrinsic (age, sex and genetic factors), co-morbidities (history of dyslipidemia, obesity, pre-existing heart failure and gut dysbiosis), lifestyle-related (vitamin D deficiency and diet) and environmental (air pollution and exposure to chemicals). 
  • 1.1K
  • 09 Sep 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Safety
Recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection requires a solid first line of innate immunity defense, namely release of interferon-alpha and beta, which interfere with viral replication.  These critical defense factors are produced upon encounter of the RNA of the virus that succeeded in host cell invasion with the cytoplasmic innate immunity receptors, notably retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-1).  A second line of defense would be the host generation of neutralizing and opsonic antibodies capable of preventing virus entry and virus spread, respectively.  We need to avoid or dampen host generation of powerful cytotoxic T cells, which lead to destruction of the host heart, lung, kidney, and small intestine cells presenting the viral peptides on their surface membrane, and potential organ failure and destruction.  We herein wish to demonstrate that the vaccine should be based uniquely on SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein subunit 1 polypeptide, because that subunit is released upon virus invasion, and does not penetrate host critical cells in the heart, lung, liver, kidney and small intestine.  Differently from all other viral peptides, subunit 1 peptides are not readily processed for presentation on the surface of the host structural cells, rendering them targets for the destructive action of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells.  
  • 1.1K
  • 14 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Endothelial Dysfunction in Diabetes
Diabetes and its vascular complications affect an increasing number of people. This disease of epidemic proportion nowadays involves abnormalities of large and small blood vessels, all commencing with alterations of the endothelial cell (EC) functions. 
  • 1.1K
  • 15 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Natural Killer Cell Therapies
The natural killer (NK) cells of the immune system identify and remove stressed, infected, or cancerous cells in the body. This anti-tumor functionality has been harnessed through promising cell-based therapies that involve the isolation, expansion, activation, and delivery of NK cells for the treatment of several cancers.
  • 1.1K
  • 06 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Efficacy of Vaccines
Vaccination is one of the most effective medical procedures with a significant impact on quality of life. The elderly and the immune-suppressed people are at risk to develop side effects or not respond. Elderly people present an altered immune response, known as immunosenescence. Immunosenescence involves mainly the adaptive immune system, with a reduced ability to respond to new antigens, accumulation of memory T cells and the constant presence of low-grade inflammation, known as inflammaging. Many alterations of adaptive immunity system have been observed and are probably central in the development of immunosenescence and possibly in the deficient response to vaccines in the elderly population. In this review, we discuss the role of immunosenescence as the result of alterations in the function of all the branches of the human immune response, which causes a defect in the normal homeostasis of the immune system, resulting probably in a major susceptibility of infections and a poorer response to vaccinations.
  • 1.1K
  • 27 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Annelid Immune Response to Nanoparticles
Earthworms and leeches are sentinel animals that represent the annelid phylum within terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, respectively. One early stress signal in these organisms is related to innate immunity, but how nanomaterials affect it is poorly characterized. In this survey, we compare the latest literature on earthworm and leeches with examples of their molecular/cellular responses to inorganic (silver nanoparticles) and organic (carbon nanotubes) nanomaterials. A special focus is placed on the role of annelid immunocytes in the evolutionarily conserved antioxidant and immune mechanisms and protein corona formation and probable endocytosis pathways involved in nanomaterial uptake. Our summary helps to realize why these environmental sentinels are beneficial to study the potential detrimental effects of nanomaterials.
  • 1.1K
  • 07 Dec 2020
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