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Topic Review
Development of Schwann Cells
Schwann cells are glial cells of the peripheral nervous system. They exist in several subtypes and perform a variety of functions in nerves. Their derivation and culture in vitro are interesting for applications ranging from disease modeling to tissue engineering. Since primary human Schwann cells are challenging to obtain in large quantities, in vitro differentiation from other cell types presents an alternative. To achieve differentiation of Schwann cells from stem cell sources in vitro, cultures are manipulated using molecular factors to emulate developmental signaling events which lead to development of Schwann cells in vivo. Therefore, knowledge of molecular determinants in embryonal development of the Schwann cell fate is key to develop and refine in vitro differentiation protocols.
  • 1.5K
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Copy-number Variation
Copy number variation (CNV) is a phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated and the number of repeats in the genome varies between individuals. Copy number variation is a type of structural variation: specifically, it is a type of duplication or deletion event that affects a considerable number of base pairs. Approximately two-thirds of the entire human genome may be composed of repeats and 4.8–9.5% of the human genome can be classified as copy number variations. In mammals, copy number variations play an important role in generating necessary variation in the population as well as disease phenotype. Copy number variations can be generally categorized into two main groups: short repeats and long repeats. However, there are no clear boundaries between the two groups and the classification depends on the nature of the loci of interest. Short repeats include mainly bi-nucleotide repeats (two repeating nucleotides e.g. A-C-A-C-A-C...) and tri-nucleotide repeats. Long repeats include repeats of entire genes. This classification based on size of the repeat is the most obvious type of classification as size is an important factor in examining the types of mechanisms that most likely gave rise to the repeats, hence the likely effects of these repeats on phenotype.
  • 1.5K
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Colorectal Cancer Treatment Based on Nanomaterials
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a global health problem responsible for 10% of all cancer incidences and 9.4% of all cancer deaths worldwide. The number of new cases increases per annum, whereas the lack of effective therapies highlights the need for novel therapeutic approaches. Conventional treatment methods, such as surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are widely applied in oncology practice. Their therapeutic success is little, and therefore, the search for novel technologies is ongoing. Many efforts have focused recently on the development of safe and efficient cancer nanomedicines. Nanoparticles are among them. They are unique with their properties on a nanoscale and hold the potential to exploit intrinsic metabolic differences between cancer and healthy cells. This feature allows them to induce high levels of toxicity in cancer cells with little damage to the surrounding healthy tissues.
  • 1.5K
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Terpenoid Transport in Plants
Contrary to the biosynthetic pathways of many terpenoids, which are well characterized and elucidated, their transport inside subcellular compartments and the secretion of reaction intermediates and final products at the short- (cell-to-cell), medium- (tissue-to-tissue), and long-distance (organ-to-organ) levels are still poorly understood, with some limited exceptions.
  • 1.5K
  • 15 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Bone Morphogenetic Protein 7
Bone morphogenetic protein-7 is (BMP-7) is a potent anti-inflammatory growth factor belonging to the Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-β) superfamily. It plays an important role in various biological processes, including embryogenesis, hematopoiesis, neurogenesis and skeletal morphogenesis. BMP-7 stimulates the target cells by binding to specific membrane-bound receptor BMPR 2 and transduces signals through mothers against decapentaplegic (Smads) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. To date, rhBMP-7 has been used clinically to induce the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells bordering the bone fracture site into chondrocytes, osteoclasts, the formation of new bone via calcium deposition and to stimulate the repair of bone fracture. However, its use in cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and diabetic cardiomyopathy is currently being explored. More importantly, these cardiovascular diseases are associated with inflammation and infiltrated monocytes where BMP-7 has been demonstrated to be a key player in the differentiation of pro-inflammatory monocytes, or M1 macrophages, into anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, which reduces developed cardiac dysfunction. 
  • 1.5K
  • 14 May 2021
Topic Review
α-Synuclein in Gene Expression
α-Synuclein (α-Syn) is a small cytosolic protein associated with a range of cellular compartments, including synaptic vesicles, the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. In addition to its physiological role in regulating presynaptic function, the protein plays a central role in both sporadic and familial Parkinson’s disease (PD) via a gain-of-function mechanism. Because of this, several recent strategies propose to decrease α-Syn levels in PD patients.
  • 1.5K
  • 13 Aug 2021
Topic Review
GSK-3 and Tau
Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a ubiquitously expressed serine/threonine kinase with a plethora of substrates. As a modulator of several cellular processes, GSK-3 has a central position in cell metabolism and signaling, with important roles both in physiological and pathological conditions. GSK-3 has been associated with a number of human disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). GSK-3 contributes to the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, the main component of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), one of the hallmarks of AD. GSK-3 is further involved in the regulation of different neuronal processes that are dysregulated during AD pathogenesis, such as the generation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide or Aβ-induced cell death, axonal transport, cholinergic function, and adult neurogenesis or synaptic function. In this review, we will summarize recent data about GSK-3 involvement in these processes contributing to AD pathology, mostly focusing on the crucial interplay between GSK-3 and tau protein. We further discuss the current development of potential AD therapies targeting GSK-3 or GSK-3 phosphorylated tau. 
  • 1.5K
  • 11 May 2021
Topic Review
Hippo in Gastric Cancer
The Hippo signalling pathway is one of the most crucial and complex ones in physiology, and there is no doubt that the regulatory mechanisms it possesses are various. The role of this signalisation process in tissue homeostasis makes it keen to lead to cancerous processes when dysregulated. 
  • 1.5K
  • 16 May 2022
Topic Review
Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Hematopoietic cells consist of a heterogenous group of cells originating from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs differentiate into multi-potent progenitor cells (MPPs) which further produce circulating and tissue-residing blood cells of specific lineage. The bone marrow (BM) is the main hematopoietic organ in an adult and houses millions of immature and mature hematopoietic cells. HSCs reside as a rare cell population in the BM where they are maintained in quiescence as a reserve pool for hematopoiesis. When hematopoiesis is compromised, HSCs self-renew, proliferate and differentiate to replenish hematopoietic cells. As with all cells in an organism, hematopoietic cells utilize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a common energy currency. While it is fundamentally known that ATP is produced anaerobically through glycolysis and aerobically through mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), the contribution of these processes for energy production varies between hematopoietic cell type. While the BM microenvironment is predominantly hypoxic, different hematopoietic cells utilize both glycolysis and OXPHOS at varying degrees for survival.
  • 1.5K
  • 25 May 2021
Topic Review
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) were originally identified as the active components in bone extracts that can induce ectopic bone formation. In recent decades, their key role has broadly expanded beyond bone physiology and pathology. Nowadays, the BMP pathway is considered an important player in vascular signaling. Indeed, mutations in genes encoding different components of the BMP pathway cause various severe vascular diseases. Their signaling contributes to the morphological, functional and molecular heterogeneity among endothelial cells in different vessel types such as arteries, veins, lymphatic vessels and capillaries within different organs. The BMP pathway is a remarkably fine-tuned pathway. As a result, its signaling output in the vessel wall critically depends on the cellular context, which includes flow hemodynamics, interplay with other vascular signaling cascades and the interaction of endothelial cells with peri-endothelial cells and the surrounding matrix.
  • 1.5K
  • 27 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Reticulocyte Maturation
Reticulocyte maturation begins after enucleation in the bone marrow. In rats, reticulocytes reside in the bone marrow from 6.5–17 hrs depending on the blood demand. These reticulocytes are termed as R1 and are characterized for their multi-lobular shape and their motility. The final stages of maturation occur during circulation where macrophages residing in the spleen may facilitate the process. These reticulocytes in circulation are termed as R2, are non-motile and have a “deep-dish” shape”. As part of their maturation, reticulocytes need to remove or degrade residual organelles and RNA. In addition, the reticulocyte must reduce its surface area and volume. On average, labelled baboon reticulocytes showed a reduction of 20% of their surface area and 15% of their volume after the first 24 h in circulation; at this point they showed a similar size distribution to that of mature RBC.
  • 1.5K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Human iPSCs into Cardiomyocytes
Reprogramming of adult somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has revolutionized the complex scientific field of disease modeling and personalized therapy. Cardiac differentiation of human iPSCs into cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) has been used in a wide range of healthy and disease models by deriving CMs from different somatic cells. Unfortunately, hiPSC-CMs have to be improved because existing protocols are not completely able to obtain mature CMs recapitulating physiological properties of human adult cardiac cells. Therefore, improvements and advances able to standardize differentiation conditions are needed. Lately, evidences of an epigenetic memory retained by the somatic cells used for deriving hiPSC-CMs has led to evaluation of different somatic sources in order to obtain more mature hiPSC-derived CMs.
  • 1.5K
  • 23 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Genetic and Genomic Alterations in Glioblastoma Multiforme
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a brain tumor characterized by high heterogeneity, diffuse infiltration, aggressiveness, and formation of recurrences. Patients with this kind of tumor suffer from cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems, beyond exhibiting dismal survival rates. Current treatment comprises surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy with the methylating agent, temozolomide (TMZ). GBMs harbor intrinsic mutations involving major pathways that elicit the cells to evade cell death, adapt to the genotoxic stress, and regrow.
  • 1.5K
  • 23 May 2022
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress and Retinitis Pigmentosa
Degenerative retina in RP is exposed to high-level O2 and thereby damaged by ROS. Microglia as well as photoreceptor cells are injured by ROS. Oxidative microglial activation promotes microgliosis and photoreceptor cell death in RP. Oxidative DNA damage mediates MUTYH-SSBs-PARP signaling to induce microglial activation.
  • 1.5K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Gut–Brain Axis
The gut–brain axis (GBA) it is a complex network in which the CNS and the enteric nervous system (ENS) interact with each other in a bilateral manner by several mechanisms, including nervous, hormonal, metabolic, and immunological ones. Recently, this relationship has been described as the ‘microbiota–gut–brain axis’ because of the known role of the gut microbiota in maintaining a physiological brain–gut relationship and its participation in the pathogenesis of several diseases. In this complex network, a plethora of interactions take place.
  • 1.5K
  • 15 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Ribosome Interactions with SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causing pathogen of the unprecedented global Coronavirus Disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic. Upon infection, the virus manipulates host cellular machinery and ribosomes to synthesize its own proteins for successful replication and to facilitate further infection. SARS-CoV-2 executes a multi-faceted hijacking of the host mRNA translation and cellular protein synthesis. Viral nonstructural proteins (NSPs) interact with a range of different ribosomal states and interfere with mRNA translation. Concurrent mutations on NSPs and spike proteins contribute to the epidemiological success of variants of concern (VOCs). The interactions between ribosomes and SARS-CoV-2 represent attractive targets for the development of antiviral therapeutics and vaccines.
  • 1.5K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Tendon and Mast Cells
Understanding the links between the tendon healing process, inflammatory mechanisms, and tendon homeostasis after tissue damage is crucial in developing novel therapeutics for human tendon disorders. The inflammatory mechanisms that are operative in response to tendon injury are not fully understood, but it has been suggested that inflammation occurring in response to nerve signaling, i.e., neurogenic inflammation, has a pathogenic role. In this review, we discuss the role of mast cells in the communication with peripheral nerves, and their emerging role in tendon healing and inflammation after injury.
  • 1.5K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Personalized Cancer Therapy on Molecular Basis
Personalized cancer therapy is a treatment strategy that takes into account the molecular profile of patients in order to stratify them into groups that are more likely to benefit from different therapeutic approaches. Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. One of the main hallmarks in cancer is the functional deregulation of crucial molecular pathways via driver genetic events that lead to abnormal gene expression, giving cells a selective growth advantage. Driver events are defined as mutations, fusions and copy number alterations that are causally implicated in oncogenesis. Molecular analysis on tissues that have originated from a wide range of anatomical areas has shown that mutations in different members of several pathways are implicated in different cancer types.
  • 1.5K
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Schwann Cells in Regeneration Selectivity
Peripheral nerve injuries result in the loss of the motor, sensory and autonomic functions of the denervated segments of the body. Neurons can regenerate their injured axons and eventually reinnervate their target organs, but inaccuracy of this reinnervation causes a permanent loss of function that impairs complete recovery. Thus, understanding how regenerating axons respond to their environment and direct their growth is essential to improve the functional outcome of patients with nerve lesions. Schwann cells (SCs), the glial cells of the peripheral nerves, play a crucial role in the regeneration process, but little is known about their contribution to specific reinnervation.
  • 1.5K
  • 28 Sep 2020
Topic Review
The Golgi Associated Retrograde Protein Complex
The Golgi associated retrograde protein complex (GARP) is an evolutionarily conserved component of Golgi membrane trafficking machinery that belongs to the Complexes Associated with Tethering Containing Helical Rods (CATCHR) family.
  • 1.5K
  • 31 Mar 2023
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