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Topic Review
Gastroparesis in Parkinson Disease
Patients with Parkinson disease (PD) experience a range of non-motor symptoms, including gastrointestinal symptoms. These symptoms can be present in the prodromal phase of the disease. Recent advances in pathophysiology reveal that α-synuclein aggregates that form Lewy bodies and neurites, the hallmark of PD, are present in the enteric nervous system and may precede motor symptoms. Gastroparesis is one of the gastrointestinal involvements of PD and is characterized by delayed gastric emptying of solid food in the absence of mechanical obstruction. Gastroparesis has been reported in nearly 45% of PD. The cardinal symptoms include early satiety, postprandial fullness, nausea, and vomiting. The diagnosis requires an appropriate test to confirm delayed gastric emptying, such as gastric scintigraphy, or breath test. Gastroparesis can lead to malnutrition and impairment of quality of life. Moreover, it might interfere with the absorption of antiparkinsonian drugs. The treatment includes dietary modifications, and pharmacologic agents both to accelerate gastric emptying and relieve symptoms. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Metabolic Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Ataxia-Telangiectasia
The ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein kinase is, as the name implies, mutated in the human genetic disorder ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T). This protein has its “finger in many pies”, being responsible for the phosphorylation of many thousands of proteins in different signaling pathways in its role in protecting the cell against a variety of different forms of stress that threaten to perturb cellular homeostasis. 
  • 1.2K
  • 20 Apr 2022
Topic Review
IgLON5
In the brain, cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are critical for neurite outgrowth, axonal fasciculation, neuronal survival and migration, and synapse formation and maintenance. Among CAMs, the IgLON family comprises five members: Opioid Binding Protein/Cell Adhesion Molecule Like (OPCML or OBCAM), Limbic System Associated Membrane Protein (LSAMP), neurotrimin (NTM), Neuronal Growth Regulator 1 (NEGR1), and IgLON5. IgLONs exhibit three N-terminal C2 immunoglobulin domains; several glycosylation sites; and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchoring to the membrane. Interactions as homo- or heterodimers in cis and in trans, as well as binding to other molecules, appear critical for their functions. Shedding by metalloproteases generates soluble factors interacting with cellular receptors and activating signal transduction.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Inflammation in Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a pathological neurological condition leading to significant motor dysfunction. SCI is most often caused by mechanical damage (also called primary damage) and the secondary damage that is caused by inflammation. The initial injury triggers successive pathophysiological cascades and activates cellular processes that contribute to secondary tissue damage. The blood–spinal cord barrier is destroyed, which promotes the infiltration of macrophages, neutrophils, and T lymphocytes into the damaged area.
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nanoparticle-Based Treatment Approaches for Skin Cancer
Nanoparticles (NPs)—defined as particles with one dimension < 100 nm—have emerged as promising drug delivery systems for such antineoplastic drugs, owing to their enhanced targeting, permeability, and retention. NPs have further shown great promise in overcoming multidrug resistance and cytotoxicity barriers intrinsic to current targeted treatment modalities, with considerable variance attributed to their classification.
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Tau Pathology in Alzheimer’s Disease and Down Syndrome
Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) exhibit an almost complete penetrance of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology but are underrepresented in clinical trials for AD. The Tau protein is associated with microtubule function in the neuron and is crucial for normal axonal transport. In several different neurodegenerative disorders, Tau misfolding leads to hyper-phosphorylation of Tau (p-Tau), which may seed pathology to bystander cells and spread.
  • 1.2K
  • 07 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Link of Mitochondrial Quality Control and Parkinson’s Disease
Dysfunctional mitochondrial quality control (MQC) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The improper selection of mitochondria for mitophagy increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and lowers ATP levels. The downstream effects include oxidative damage, failure to maintain proteostasis and ion gradients, and decreased NAD+ and NADPH levels, resulting in insufficient energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. A ketosis-based metabolic therapy that increases the levels of (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) may reverse the dysfunctional MQC by partially replacing glucose as an energy source, by stimulating mitophagy, and by decreasing inflammation. Fasting can potentially raise cytoplasmic NADPH levels by increasing the mitochondrial export and cytoplasmic metabolism of ketone body-derived citrate that increases flux through isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1). NADPH is an essential cofactor for nitric oxide synthase, and the nitric oxide synthesized can diffuse into the mitochondrial matrix and react with electron transport chain-synthesized superoxide to form peroxynitrite. Excessive superoxide and peroxynitrite production can cause the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) to depolarize the mitochondria and activate PINK1-dependent mitophagy. Both fasting and exercise increase ketogenesis and increase the cellular NAD+/NADH ratio, both of which are beneficial for neuronal metabolism.
  • 1.2K
  • 31 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main phytocannabinoid found in plants of the Cannabis genus. Although THC has exactly the same chemical formula as cannabidiol (CBD) (i.e., C21H30O2), there is a slight difference in their atomic arrangement in that THC contains a cyclic ring, whereas CBD contains a hydroxyl group. THC is considered the main psychotropic constituent of cannabis, acting as a partial agonist at cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) and type 1 (CB2) receptors of the endocannabinoid system.
  • 1.2K
  • 16 Mar 2022
Topic Review
CD163
In ischemic stroke patients, a higher monocyte count is associated with disease severity and worse prognosis. The complex correlation between subset phenotypes and functions underscores the importance of clarifying the role of monocyte subpopulations. We examined the subtype-specific distribution of the CD163+ and CD80+ circulating monocytes and evaluated their association with the inflammatory status in 26 ischemic stroke patients and 16 healthy controls.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Waste Clearance in the Brain and Neuroinflammation
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease with a heterogeneous etiology. The pathology of Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by amyloid-beta and hyperphosphorylated tau, which are necessary for disease progression. Many clinical trials on disease-modifying drugs for AD have failed to indicate their clinical benefits. Recent advances in fundamental research have indicated that neuroinflammation plays an important pathological role in AD. Damage- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns in the brain induce neuroinflammation and inflammasome activation, causing caspase-1-dependent glial and neuronal cell death. These waste products in the brain are eliminated by the glymphatic system via perivascular spaces, the blood-brain barrier, and the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier. Age-related vascular dysfunction is associated with an impairment of clearance and barrier functions, leading to neuroinflammation. The proteins involved in waste clearance in the brain and peripheral circulation may be potential biomarkers and drug targets in the early stages of cognitive impairment.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Marine Polyphenols Involved in Neuroprotective Activity
Polyphenols are beneficial natural compounds with antioxidant properties that have recently gain a lot of interest for their potential therapeutic applications. Marine polyphenols derived from marine macroalgae have been discovered to possess interesting antioxidant properties; therefore, these compounds can be included in several areas of drug development.
  • 1.2K
  • 26 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Pediatric Acute Encephalopathy
Acute encephalopathy typically affects previously healthy children and often results in death or severe neurological sequelae. Acute encephalopathy is a group of multiple syndromes characterized by various clinical symptoms, such as loss of consciousness, motor and sensory impairments, and status convulsions.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Glymphatic System and Endocannabinoid System
The intricate mechanisms governing brain health and function have long been subjects of extensive investigation. Recent research has shed light on two pivotal systems, the glymphatic system and the endocannabinoid system, and their profound role within the central nervous system. The glymphatic system is a recently discovered waste clearance system within the brain that facilitates the efficient removal of toxic waste products and metabolites from the central nervous system.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Cenobamate
Medical management of epilepsy seeks to eliminate or to reduce the frequency of seizures, help patients maintain a normal lifestyle, and maintain psychosocial and occupational activities, while avoiding the negative side effects of long-term treatment. Current FDA approved drugs have been shown to have similar efficacy; however, they all share a commonality of having side effects that have the potential to significantly reduce a patient’s quality of life. Cenobamate, a newly-FDA approved drug used to treat partial-onset seizures in adult patients, has demonstrated promise in that it works on two proposed mechanisms that are commonly associated with epilepsy. Cenobamate acts as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA ion channels and is effective in reducing repetitive neuronal firing by inhibition of voltage-gated sodium channels, although the complete mechanism of action is currently unknown. The efficacy of Cenobamate with its low toxicity and adverse drug reaction profile emphasizes the need to further evaluate antiepileptic therapies containing sulfamoylphenyl and/or carbamate moieties in their chemical structure. Recent studies have found more patients to be seizure free during the maintenance period when compared to placebo. The most common side effects reported in with Cenobamate are somnolence, dizziness, headache, nausea, and fatigue. 
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
AUTS2 Gene
AUTS2 is a large gene spanning 1.2 M bases on human chromosome 7q11.22 (A). It consists of 19 exons, the first 6 of which are separated by long introns at the 5′ end, whilst the remaining 13 are compact with clustered smaller introns at the 3′ end. The full-lengthAUTS2transcript encodes a protein with 1259 amino acids (aa) in humans (NM_015570) and 1261 aa in mice (NM_177047), although various isoforms are generated by alternative splicing and multiple transcription start sites (TSS).
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Dietary Polyphenols to Target Alzheimer’s Disease
Dietary polyphenols may provide various levels of protection for neuronal health.  This entry extensively examines this topic tabulating the in vivo and in vitro studies that have been performed, the methods used, the doses and duration of treatments, and most importantly the outcomes.  The entry can be particularly useful as a reference and for those embarking on studies to further exploit dietary polyphenols for protection against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's Disease.
  • 1.2K
  • 21 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Intestinal Microbiome in Depression
The intestinal microbiota plays an important role in the pathophysiology of depression. As determined, the microbiota influences the shaping and modulation of the functioning of the gut–brain axis. The intestinal microbiota has a significant impact on processes related to neurotransmitter synthesis, the myelination of neurons in the prefrontal cortex, and is also involved in the development of the amygdala and hippocampus. Intestinal bacteria are also a source of vitamins, the deficiency of which is believed to be related to the response to antidepressant therapy and may lead to exacerbation of depressive symptoms. Additionally, it is known that, in periods of excessive activation of stress reactions, the immune system also plays an important role, negatively affecting the tightness of the intestinal barrier and intestinal microflora.
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Neuroprotective Effects of Calorie Restriction and Intermittent Fasting
Calorie restriction (CR) is a commonly used food restriction (FR) strategy that restricts everyday energy intake without incurring malnutrition. Intermittent fasting (IF) refers to cycles of fasting and intermittent feeding window over a given time schedule. Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a temporary or permanent disruption of normal brain function due to damage incurred by external forces, is a major burden on those effected. Various CR and IF regimens have recently been reported to exert neuroprotective effects in TBI through variable mechanisms.
  • 1.2K
  • 21 Apr 2022
Biography
Frances Champagne
Frances A. Champagne is a psychologist and professor known for her research in the fields of molecular neuroscience, maternal behavior, and epigenetics. Her main research interest concerns how genetic and environmental factors interact to regulate maternal behavior, and how natural variations in this behavior can shape the behavioral development of offspring through epigenetic changes in gene ex
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Toxin-Based Models of Parkinson’s Disease
Different neurotoxins have been shown to cause DAergic neuron degeneration with a high degree of selectivity. Some utilize the dopamine transporter to enter the neurons, others are lipophilic agents or neurotransmitter receptors' agonists that, directly or indirectly, ultimately impair the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Taking advantage of these properties, several molecules have been extensively used to obtain PD experimental models. These include 6-OHDA, MPTP (MPP+), the pesticides rotenone and paraquat, and the non-protein aminoacid L-BMAA.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Apr 2022
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