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Topic Review
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. ADHD impairments arise from irregularities primarily in dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) circuits within the prefrontal cortex.
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Components of the Blood–Brain Barrier
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly specialized and dynamic compartment which regulates the uptake of molecules and solutes from the blood. The neurovascular unit (NVU) has been described as a structure formed by microvascular endothelium, astrocytes, pericytes and neurons that are in physical proximity to the endothelium, basal lamina and parenchymal basement membrane. Each NVU component is intimately and reciprocally linked to each other, sharing several characteristics and establishing an anatomical and functional whole, which results in a highly efficient system regulating cerebral blood flow. 
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
NEDD4 E3 Ubiquitin–Protein Ligases in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease that causes a great clinical burden. However, its exact molecular pathologies are not fully understood. Whilst there are a number of avenues for research into slowing, halting, or reversing PD, one central idea is to enhance the clearance of the proposed aetiological protein, oligomeric α-synuclein. Oligomeric α-synuclein is the main constituent protein in Lewy bodies and neurites and is considered neurotoxic. Multiple E3 ubiquitin-protein ligases, including the NEDD4 (neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated protein 4) family, parkin, SIAH (mammalian homologues of Drosophila seven in absentia), CHIP (carboxy-terminus of Hsc70 interacting protein), and SCFFXBL5 SCF ubiquitin ligase assembled by the S-phase kinase-associated protein (SKP1), cullin-1 (Cul1), a zinc-binding RING finger protein, and the F-box domain/Leucine-rich repeat protein 5-containing protein FBXL5), have been shown to be able to ubiquitinate α-synuclein, influencing its subsequent degradation via the proteasome or lysosome. Some members of the NEDD4 family of ligases are thought to crosstalk even with PD-related genes and proteins found to be mutated in familial forms of PD. Mutations in NEDD4 family genes have not been observed in PD patients, most likely because of their essential survival function during development. It has been thought that NEDD4 ligases may be viable therapeutic targets in PD. NEDD4 family members could clear toxic proteins, enhancing cell survival and slowing disease progression, or might diminish beneficial proteins, reducing cell survival and accelerating disease progression. 
  • 1.2K
  • 10 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Ion Channel Disturbances in Migraine Headache
Migraine is a primary headache disorder, which is an enormous burden to the healthcare system. While some aspects of the pathomechanism of migraines remain unknown, the most accepted theory is that activation and sensitization of the trigeminovascular system are essential during migraine attacks. It has been suggested that ion channels may be important participants in the pathogenesis of migraine. Numerous ion channels are expressed in the peripheral and central nervous systems, including the trigeminovascular system, affecting neuron excitability, synaptic energy homeostasis, inflammatory signaling, and pain sensation. Dysfunction of ion channels could result in neuronal excitability and peripheral or central sensitization.
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Lactobacillus as Probiotics against Different Health Issues
Probiotics are microorganisms involved in the growth and development of other microorganisms, derived from a Greek word meaning "for life". The well-accepted definition of probiotics was given by Fuller, according to which "Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the host animal by improving microbial balance" . WHO redefines the term as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host". The concept of probiotics was introduced by Elie Metchnikoff in 1907. He introduced the idea that food microbes can modify the normal flora of the human body and that replacement of harmful microbes with beneficial microbes is possible. Based on this concept, the term “probiotics” was defined in different ways. The term probiotic was first used by Lilly and Stillwell in 1960. In 1857, Pasteur discovered the first bacteria that were lactic acid-producing. Then in 1878, Lister also separated and recognized these lactic acid bacteria. In 1889, Henry Tissier discovered Bifidobacterium and also found that these bacteria could be used to treat acute gastroenteritis caused by an imbalance of harmful microorganisms. The idea that probiotics could be friendly and used to treat certain intestinal diseases was also reported and presented by Tissier, in 1906. The most widely used microorganism as probiotics is Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Saccharomyces boulardii. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are Gram-positive rods that are obligated facultative anaerobes and S.boulardii is a yeast.
  • 1.2K
  • 09 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Intranasal Drug Administration in Alzheimer-Type Dementia
Alzheimer-type dementia (ATD) treatments face limitations in crossing the blood–brain barrier and systemic adverse effects. Intranasal administration offers a direct route to the brain via the nasal cavity’s olfactory and trigeminal pathways. 
  • 1.2K
  • 22 May 2023
Topic Review
Pediatric Acute Encephalopathy
Acute encephalopathy typically affects previously healthy children and often results in death or severe neurological sequelae. Acute encephalopathy is a group of multiple syndromes characterized by various clinical symptoms, such as loss of consciousness, motor and sensory impairments, and status convulsions.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Waste Clearance in the Brain and Neuroinflammation
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease with a heterogeneous etiology. The pathology of Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by amyloid-beta and hyperphosphorylated tau, which are necessary for disease progression. Many clinical trials on disease-modifying drugs for AD have failed to indicate their clinical benefits. Recent advances in fundamental research have indicated that neuroinflammation plays an important pathological role in AD. Damage- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns in the brain induce neuroinflammation and inflammasome activation, causing caspase-1-dependent glial and neuronal cell death. These waste products in the brain are eliminated by the glymphatic system via perivascular spaces, the blood-brain barrier, and the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier. Age-related vascular dysfunction is associated with an impairment of clearance and barrier functions, leading to neuroinflammation. The proteins involved in waste clearance in the brain and peripheral circulation may be potential biomarkers and drug targets in the early stages of cognitive impairment.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Importance of GABA in the Nervous System
Normal development and function of the central nervous system involves a balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. Activity of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons is modulated by inhibitory signalling of the GABAergic and glycinergic systems. Mechanisms that regulate formation, maturation, refinement, and maintenance of inhibitory synapses are established in early life. Deviations from ideal excitatory and inhibitory balance, such as down-regulated inhibition, are linked with many neurological diseases, including epilepsy, schizophrenia, anxiety, and autism spectrum disorders. In the mammalian forebrain, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, binding to GABA receptors, opening chloride channels and hyperpolarizing the cell.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel in Neurodegenerative Diseases
The pore-forming subunits (α subunits) of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) are encoded in humans by a family of nine highly conserved genes. Among them, SCN1A, SCN2A, SCN3A, and SCN8A are primarily expressed in the central nervous system. The encoded proteins Nav1.1, Nav1.2, Nav1.3, and Nav1.6, respectively, are important players in the initiation and propagation of action potentials and in turn of the neural network activity. In the context of neurological diseases, mutations in the genes encoding Nav1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.6 are responsible for many forms of genetic epilepsy and for Nav1.1 also of hemiplegic migraine. Conversely, VGSCs seem to have a modulatory role in the most common neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, where SCN8A expression has been shown to be negatively correlated with disease severity.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 May 2023
Topic Review
PRDM12 in Health and Diseases
PRDM12 is a member of the PRDI-BF1 (positive regulatory domain I-binding factor 1) homologous domain (PRDM)-containing protein family, a subfamily of Kruppel-like zinc finger proteins, controlling key processes in the development of cancer. PRDM12 is expressed in a spatio-temporal manner in neuronal systems where it exerts multiple functions. PRDM12 is essential for the neurogenesis initiation and activation of a cascade of downstream pro-neuronal transcription factors in the nociceptive lineage.
  • 1.2K
  • 12 Nov 2021
Topic Review
PITRM1 in Neurodegeneration
Mounting evidence shows a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer Disease. Increased oxidative stress, defective mitodynamics, and impaired oxidative phosphorylation leading to decreased ATP production, can determine synaptic dysfunction, apoptosis, and neurodegeneration. Furthermore, mitochondrial proteostasis and the protease-mediated quality control system, carrying out degradation of potentially toxic peptides and misfolded or damaged proteins inside mitochondria, are emerging as potential pathogenetic mechanisms. The enzyme pitrilysin metallopeptidase 1 (PITRM1) is a key player in these processes; it is responsible for degrading mitochondrial targeting sequences that are cleaved off from the imported precursor proteins and for digesting a mitochondrial fraction of amyloid beta (Aβ).
  • 1.2K
  • 05 Aug 2021
Topic Review
CAMs in Peripheral Nerve Regeneration
Despite the progressive advances, current standards of treatments for peripheral nerve injury do not guarantee complete recovery. Thus, alternative therapeutic interventions should be considered. Complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) are widely explored for their therapeutic value, but their potential use in peripheral nerve regeneration is underappreciated. Various CAMs enhanced proliferation and migration of Schwann cells in vitro, primarily through activation of MAPK pathway and FGF-2 signaling, respectively. Animal studies demonstrated the ability of CAMs to promote peripheral nerve regeneration and functional recovery, which are partially associated with modulations of neurotrophic factors, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and anti-apoptotic signaling. 
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Nanoparticle-Based Treatment Approaches for Skin Cancer
Nanoparticles (NPs)—defined as particles with one dimension < 100 nm—have emerged as promising drug delivery systems for such antineoplastic drugs, owing to their enhanced targeting, permeability, and retention. NPs have further shown great promise in overcoming multidrug resistance and cytotoxicity barriers intrinsic to current targeted treatment modalities, with considerable variance attributed to their classification.
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Tau Pathology in Alzheimer’s Disease and Down Syndrome
Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) exhibit an almost complete penetrance of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology but are underrepresented in clinical trials for AD. The Tau protein is associated with microtubule function in the neuron and is crucial for normal axonal transport. In several different neurodegenerative disorders, Tau misfolding leads to hyper-phosphorylation of Tau (p-Tau), which may seed pathology to bystander cells and spread.
  • 1.2K
  • 07 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Gastroparesis in Parkinson Disease
Patients with Parkinson disease (PD) experience a range of non-motor symptoms, including gastrointestinal symptoms. These symptoms can be present in the prodromal phase of the disease. Recent advances in pathophysiology reveal that α-synuclein aggregates that form Lewy bodies and neurites, the hallmark of PD, are present in the enteric nervous system and may precede motor symptoms. Gastroparesis is one of the gastrointestinal involvements of PD and is characterized by delayed gastric emptying of solid food in the absence of mechanical obstruction. Gastroparesis has been reported in nearly 45% of PD. The cardinal symptoms include early satiety, postprandial fullness, nausea, and vomiting. The diagnosis requires an appropriate test to confirm delayed gastric emptying, such as gastric scintigraphy, or breath test. Gastroparesis can lead to malnutrition and impairment of quality of life. Moreover, it might interfere with the absorption of antiparkinsonian drugs. The treatment includes dietary modifications, and pharmacologic agents both to accelerate gastric emptying and relieve symptoms. 
  • 1.2K
  • 06 Sep 2023
Topic Review Video
Inflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, fatal neurodegenerative condition that affects over 20 million people around the world. It presents clinically as impairment of cognitive function and decision-making, memory loss, language difficulties and changes in behavior and personality. Neuronal loss and synaptic dysfunction are hallmarks of the disease. Detected microscopically within the brain are amyloid plaques formed by aggregation of amyloid β and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Increasing global concern has led to the allocation of extensive resources to study AD pathophysiology, but the understanding of its causes remains rudimentary, and the treatments are inadequate. Although AD causality is not clear, a key process observed in neurodegeneration in AD is the triggering of inflammatory cascades. 
  • 1.2K
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
CHD8
Chromodomain-helicase-DNA-binding protein 8 (CHD8) has been identified as one of the genes with the strongest association with autism. The CHD8 protein is a transcriptional regulator that is expressed in nearly all cell types and has been implicated in multiple cellular processes, including cell cycle, cell adhesion, neuronal development, myelination, and synaptogenesis. Considering the central role of CHD8 in the genetics of autism, a deeper understanding of the physiological functions of CHD8 is important to understand the development of the autism phenotype and potential therapeutic targets. Different CHD8 mutant mouse models were developed to determine autism-like phenotypes and to fully understand their mechanisms. 
  • 1.2K
  • 20 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Inflammation in Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a pathological neurological condition leading to significant motor dysfunction. SCI is most often caused by mechanical damage (also called primary damage) and the secondary damage that is caused by inflammation. The initial injury triggers successive pathophysiological cascades and activates cellular processes that contribute to secondary tissue damage. The blood–spinal cord barrier is destroyed, which promotes the infiltration of macrophages, neutrophils, and T lymphocytes into the damaged area.
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main phytocannabinoid found in plants of the Cannabis genus. Although THC has exactly the same chemical formula as cannabidiol (CBD) (i.e., C21H30O2), there is a slight difference in their atomic arrangement in that THC contains a cyclic ring, whereas CBD contains a hydroxyl group. THC is considered the main psychotropic constituent of cannabis, acting as a partial agonist at cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) and type 1 (CB2) receptors of the endocannabinoid system.
  • 1.2K
  • 16 Mar 2022
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