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Topic Review
Functional Role of STING
The cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS) is a pattern recognition receptor that recognizes viral DNA present in the cytosol, activating the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) protein and leading to the production of type I interferons (IFN-I). Given its role in innate immunity activation, STING is considered an interesting and innovative target for the development of broad-spectrum antivirals.
  • 1.1K
  • 16 May 2023
Topic Review
Human Astrovirus Capsid
Astroviruses (AstVs) are non-enveloped, positive single-stranded RNA viruses that cause a wide range of inflammatory diseases in mammalian and avian hosts.
  • 1.1K
  • 14 May 2021
Topic Review
The Cytokine Storm in COVID-19
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The clinical presentations of the SARS-CoV-2 infection are widely variable and treatment strategies for COVID-19 are dependent on the infection phase. Timing the right treatment for the right phase of this disease is paramount, with correlations detected between the phase of the infection and the type of drug used to treat. The immune system activation following COVID-19 infection can further develop to a fulminant cytokine storm which can progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome. The inflammatory phase, or the hyperinflammation phase, is a later stage when patients develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis, and kidney and other organ failure. In this stage, the virus is probably not necessary and all the damage is due to the immune system’s cytokine storm. Immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory agent administration is the major strategy in treating COVID-19 patients at this stage. On the other hand, immunodeficient patients who are treated with immunomodulator agents have attenuated immune systems that do not produce enough cytokines. Current data do not show an increased risk of severe COVID-19 in patients taking biologic therapies or targeted disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs.
  • 1.1K
  • 16 May 2022
Topic Review
COVID 19 BIBILOGRAPHIC DRUG DISCUSSIONS
In this type of note some Probable synthetic drugs both the Non Antiviral as well as Antiviral synthetic drugs servingagainst Covid19 commonly used under trial basis are taken into discussion .Starting from Hydroxy- Chloroquine sulphateto Remdesivir just some points are discussed only but the in detail study regarding Structure , SAR , Q –SAR ,Formulations Pharmacology / Bio-logical activities are available in the following BIBILOGRAPHIC discussions
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Nanoparticle- and Microparticle-Based Vaccines against Orbiviruses
Bluetongue virus (BTV) and African horse sickness virus (AHSV) are widespread arboviruses that cause important economic losses in the livestock and equine industries, respectively. In addition to these, another arthropod-transmitted orbivirus known as epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) entails a major threat as there is a conducive landscape that nurtures its emergence in non-endemic countries. To date, only vaccinations with live attenuated or inactivated vaccines permit the control of these three viral diseases, although important drawbacks, e.g., low safety profile and effectiveness, and lack of DIVA (differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals) properties, constrain their usage as prophylactic measures. Moreover, a substantial number of serotypes of BTV, AHSV and EHDV have been described, with poor induction of cross-protective immune responses among serotypes. In the context of next-generation vaccine development, antigen delivery systems based on nano- or microparticles have gathered significant attention. A diversity of technologies, such as virus-like particles or self-assembled protein complexes, have been implemented for vaccine design against these viruses.
  • 1.1K
  • 19 Jul 2022
Topic Review
CHIKV
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an Alphavirus of the Togaviridae family that is transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. The virus causes acute febrile illness in infected people, which frequently leads to chronic debilitating polyarthritis and polyarthralgia. Most of the symptoms resolve after 10 days, but polyarthralgia can persist for months or years, and severe symptoms, such as encephalitis, hemorrhagic disease and mortality, have also been described.
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Multi-Organ Involvement in COVID-19
Coronavirus Disease 19 (COVID-19), due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become an on-going global health emergency affecting over 94 million cases with more than 2 million deaths globally. Primarily identified as atypical pneumonia, it has developed into severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a multi-organ dysfunction with associated fatality. Ever since its emergence, COVID-19 with its plethora of clinical presentations has signalled its dynamic nature and versatility of the disease process. Being a disease with droplet transmission has now assumed the proportion of a suspected airborne nature which, once proved, poses a Herculean task to control. Because of the wide distribution of the human angio-tensin-converting enzyme-2 (hACE2) receptors, known for its transmission, we envisage its mul-tiorgan spread and extensive disease distribution.
  • 1.0K
  • 07 May 2021
Topic Review
Herpesvirus
Herpesviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses occurring at a high prevalence in the human population and are responsible for a wide array of clinical manifestations and diseases, from mild to severe. These viruses are classified in three subfamilies (Alpha-, Beta- and Gammaherpesvirinae), with eight members known to infect humans.
  • 1.0K
  • 16 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Single-Molecule FRET Imaging
Single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has provided a powerful platform to connect structure–function in motion, revealing dynamic aspects of spikes for several viruses: SARS-CoV-2, HIV-1, influenza, and Ebola.
  • 1.0K
  • 11 May 2021
Topic Review
Human Cytomegalovirus-Encoded miRNAs
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the β-herpesvirus family and infects 40–90% of the adult population worldwide. HCMV infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals but causes serious problems in immunocompromised people. It is found that a series of HCMV-encoded miRNAs (e.g., miR-UL112 and miR-UL148D) are explicitly involved in the regulation of viral DNA replication, immune evasion, as well as host cell fate. MiRNA-targeted therapies have been explored for the treatment of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and hepatitis C virus infection. It is feasible to develop an alternative vaccine to restart peripheral immunity or to inhibit HCMV activity, which may contribute to the antiviral intervention for serious HCMV-related diseases. 
  • 1.0K
  • 09 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Seasonal Influenza A Viruses
Two antiviral classes, the neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) and polymerase inhibitors (baloxavir marboxil and favipiravir) can be used to prevent and treat influenza infections during seasonal epidemics and pandemics. However, prolonged treatment may lead to the emergence of drug resistance. Therapeutic combinations constitute an alternative to prevent resistance and reduce antiviral doses. Therefore, we evaluated in vitro combinations of baloxavir acid (BXA) and other approved drugs against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and A(H3N2) subtypes. The determination of an effective concentration inhibiting virus cytopathic effects by 50% (EC50) for each drug and combination indexes (CIs) were based on cell viability. CompuSyn software was used to determine synergism, additivity or antagonism between drugs. Combinations of BXA and NAIs or favipiravir had synergistic effects on cell viability against the two influenza A subtypes. Those effects were confirmed using a physiological and predictive ex vivo reconstructed human airway epithelium model. On the other hand, the combination of BXA and ribavirin showed mixed results. Overall, BXA stands as a good candidate for combination with several existing drugs, notably oseltamivir and favipiravir, to improve in vitro antiviral activity. These results should be considered for further animal and clinical evaluations.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Oct 2020
Topic Review
A Defective Viral Particle Approach to COVID-19
Defective interfering particles, which arise naturally and interfere with viruses, have long inspired the idea that they might be adapted to treat viral diseases. Here, we explore how such defective interfering particles and other therapeutic nanoparticles might be designed and constructed to interfere with SARS-CoV-2.
  • 1.0K
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Visna Virus
Visna virus (also known as visna-maedi virus, maedi-visna virus and ovine lentivirus) from the genus Lentivirus and subfamily Orthoretrovirinae, is a "prototype" retrovirus that causes encephalitis and chronic pneumonitis in sheep. It is known as visna when found in the brain, and maedi when infecting the lungs. Lifelong, persistent infections in sheep occur in the lungs, lymph nodes, spleen, joints, central nervous system, and mammary glands; The condition is sometimes known as "ovine progressive pneumonia" (OPP), particularly in the United States , or "Montana sheep disease". White blood cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage are the main target of visna virus.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Garlic Virus E Genome
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) plants exhibiting mosaics, deformation, and yellow stripes symptoms were identified in Meerut City, Uttar Pradesh, India. To investigate the viruses in the garlic samples, the method of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) was used. Complete genome of the garlic virus E (GarV-E) isolate (NCBI accession No. MW925710) was retrieved. The virus complete genome comprises 8450 nucleotides (nts), excluding the poly (A) tail at the 3′ terminus, with 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of 99 and 384 nts, respectively, and ORFs encoding replicase with a conserved motif for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), TGB1, TGB2, TGB3, serine-rich protein, coat protein, and nucleic acid binding protein (NABP). The sequence homology shared 83.49–90.40% and 87.48–92.87% with those of GarV-E isolates available in NCBI at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed a close relationship of this isolate from India (MW925710) with GarV-E isolate YH (AJ292230) from Zhejiang, China. The presence of GarV-E was also confirmed by RT-PCR.
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Views on Vaccination against COVID-19 Virus
Mass immunization of the citizens of the Republic of Serbia began in January 2021. Information on the significance, manner, advantages and consequences of this process was intensively distributed through all communication channels, with the media playing a key role. According to the data of the official institutions for the public health of Serbia, by July 2021 the lowest percentage of vaccinated population was among those between the ages of 18 and 24—only 15% of this demographic had received the vaccine by this point.
  • 1.0K
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Artificial Lipid Membranes for Viral Assembly Research
The cell plasma membrane is mainly composed of phospholipids, cholesterol and embedded proteins, presenting a complex interface with the cell environment. Enveloped viruses are also surrounded by a lipidic membrane derived from the host-cell membrane and acquired during the assembly at and the budding from the host cell plasma membrane. In this perspective, model membranes, composed of selected lipid mixtures mimicking plasma membrane chemical and physical properties, are tools of choice to decipher the first steps of enveloped viruses assembly. Hereafter are detailled some of the existing artificial lipid membranes and their contribution in deciphering the assembly process of 3 well known envelopped virus, the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), the Influenza virus (IfV) and the Ebola virus (EboV).
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Vaccinia Virus - Good Fellow for Vaccine Development
Various vaccinia virus (VACV) strains were applied during the smallpox vaccination campaign to eradicate the variola virus worldwide. After the eradication of smallpox, VACV gained popularity as a viral vector thanks to increasing innovations in genetic engineering and vaccine technology. Some VACV strains have been extensively used to develop vaccine candidates against various diseases. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is a VACV vaccine strain that offers several advantages for the development of recombinant vaccine candidates. In addition to various host-restriction genes, MVA lacks several immunomodulatory genes of which some have proven to be quite efficient in skewing the immune response in an unfavorable way to control infection in the host. Studies to manipulate these genes aim to optimize the immunogenicity and safety of MVA-based viral vector vaccine candidates.
  • 1.0K
  • 16 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Potential Coding of Human Cytomegalovirus
Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a large envelope worldwide prevalent betaherpesvirus, ranging from 45% to 100% in the general population based on socio-economic factors. CMV is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals that will benefit from the availability of a vaccine. Despite the efforts made during the last decade, no CMV vaccine is available. An ideal CMV vaccine should elicit a broad immune response against multiple viral antigens including proteins involved in virus-cell interaction and entry. However, the therapeutic use of neutralizing antibodies targeting glycoproteins involved in viral entry achieved only partial protection against infection.
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Human Papillomavirus Oncoproteins and Ubiquitin Proteasome System
Papillomaviridae is a diverse family of small, non-enveloped DNA viruses, approximately 50–60 nm in diameter that infect all homoeothermic vertebrates including humans. Human papillomavirus (HPV) E6 and E7 oncoproteins are critical for development and maintenance of the malignant phenotype in HPV-induced cancers. These two viral oncoproteins interfere with a plethora of cellular pathways, including the regulation of cell cycle and the control of apoptosis, which are critical in maintaining normal cellular functions. E6 and E7 bind directly with certain components of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS), enabling them to manipulate a number of important cellular pathways. 
  • 1.0K
  • 28 Apr 2022
Topic Review
JC Polyomavirus and Transplantation
The JC polyomavirus (JCPyV/JCV) is a member of the Polyomaviridae family and is ubiquitious in the general population, infecting 50–80% of individuals globally. The virus remains latent but can reactivate under conditions of immunosuppression and cause life-threatening disease such as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML).  PML can be a complication of HIV disease especially in HIV patients who are not receiving anti retroviral therapy. In immunocompetent individuals, PML is rare however, the incidence of PML is increasing due to the widespread use of immune modulating therapies.  JCV induced PML is rare in solid organ transplant patients but there is documented cases that correlate with immunosuppression that is required allograft transplantation. Currently there no curative therapies for PML with high mortality after diagnosis. 
  • 1.0K
  • 12 Oct 2021
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