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Topic Review
Fungal Urinary Tract Infection
Fungal urinary tract infections (FUTI) are mainly caused by Candida species. The urine can be an important specimen for the diagnosis of this kind of clinical condition since both the presence of fungi can be identified by urine microscopy and by uroculture and the cells that promotes the immune response against this kind of infectious agent can also be observed. This entry will focus on information related to FUTI and the urinary findings that can be detected during routine urinalysis that can contribute to the identification of this clinical condition.
  • 18.7K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Secretory IgA
Secretory IgA (SIgA) is the dominant antibody class in mucosal secretions, it is also present in saliva and breast milk. The majority of plasma cells producing SIgA are located within mucosal membranes lining the intestines, airway and reproductive tracts, as well as mammary gland. SIgA protects against the adhesion of pathogens and their penetration into the mucosal barriers. Moreover, SIgA regulates microbiota composition at mucosa sites and provides local homeostasis.
  • 4.3K
  • 17 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Neutrophils in Pregnancy, Term and Preterm Labour
Neutrophils are surveillance cells, and the first to react and migrate to sites of inflammation and infection following a chemotactic gradient. Neutrophils play a key role in both sterile inflammation and infection, performing a wide variety of effector functions such as degranulation, phagocytosis, ROS production and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Healthy term labour requires a sterile pro-inflammatory process, whereas one of the most common causes of spontaneous preterm birth is microbial driven. Peripheral neutrophilia has long been described during pregnancy, and evidence exists demonstrating neutrophils infiltrating the cervix, uterus and foetal membranes during both term and preterm deliveries. Their presence supports a role in tissue remodelling via their effector functions.
  • 4.3K
  • 30 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are heterogeneous cells derived from bone marrow. They are precursors of dendritic cells, macrophages and/or granulocytes. They have the ability to significantly inhibit immune cell responses.
  • 3.1K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Immunopeptidome
Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) plays a crucial role in the development of adaptive immune response in vertebrates. MHC molecules are cell surface protein complexes loaded with short peptides and recognized by the T-cell receptors (TCR). Peptides associated with MHC are named immunopeptidome. The MHC I immunopeptidome is produced by the proteasome degradation of intracellular proteins. The knowledge of the immunopeptidome repertoire facilitates the creation of personalized antitumor or antiviral vaccines. A huge number of publications on the immunopeptidome diversity of different human and mouse biological samples - plasma, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and solid tissues, including tumors - appeared in the scientific journals in the last decade. Significant immunopeptidome identification efficiency was achieved by advances in technology: the immunoprecipitation of MHC and mass spectrometry-based approaches.
  • 2.6K
  • 30 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Neutrophil and Natural Killer Cell Interactions in Cancers
Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating leukocytes, accounting for 50–70% of blood cells. Natural killer (NK) cells are large granular lymphocytes from innate immunity, participating in virus-infected and malignant-transformed cells recognition and elimination.
  • 2.5K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Dietary Fibre from Virgin Sugarcane
Prebiotic dietary fibre (DF) has gained significant research attention owing to its reported potential in conferring health benefits through modulating gut microbiota composition and their metabolic activities. Complex dietary fibres from whole-plant sources are becoming recognised as vital parameters in influencing the gut microbial diversity in contrast to isolated or purified DF forms. In this entry, we review the recent evidence from in-vivo and clinical studies to support the significant prebiotic capacity of whole-plant virgin processed sugarcane fibre in countering gut inflammation and undesirable digestive symptoms.
  • 2.4K
  • 16 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Acquired Cytomegalovirus Infection Hearing Loss
Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection induces a clinical syndrome usually associated with hearing loss. However, the effect of acquired CVM infection in adults and children has not been clearly defined.
  • 2.3K
  • 28 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Anti-Ro Antibodies and fetal complications
Maternal anti-Ro antibodies present during the fetal period can cause complications ranging from congenital heart block, fetal demise or long-term consequences. The anti-Ro induced autoimmune reaction causes long-term fibrosis and calcification of the conductive tissue. In addition, the CHB injury mechanisms were shown to involve other factors, like fetal susceptibility that increases for every subsequent pregnancy, from a 2% incidence in the case of nulliparous mothers. The predictive value of maternal anti-Ro antibodies for CHB high-risk pregnancy is low, and other markers are lacking, making this condition difficult to efficiently monitor. Moreover, the positive anti-Ro pregnancies do not benefit from a prophylactic treatment or from an efficient therapy once CHB was diagnosed. Thus, new data from ongoing trials are highly expected, to provide both potential biomarkers and therapeutic solutions. This entry illustrates the current understanding of the anti-Ro antibodies associated pathologies, from the perspective of specialists involved in its management, emphasizing key issues, missing links, and possible future directions for an effective interdisciplinary approach.
  • 2.2K
  • 08 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Aryl-hydrocarbon Receptor
The aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that mediates numerous cellular responses. Originally investigated in toxicology because of its ability to bind environmental contaminants, AhR has attracted enormous attention in the field of immunology in the last 20 years. In addition, the discovery of endogenous and plant-derived ligands points to AhR also having a crucial role in normal cell physiology. Thus, AhR is emerging as a promiscuous receptor that can mediate either toxic or physiologic effects upon sensing multiple exogenous and endogenous molecules. Within this scenario, several factors appear to contribute to the outcome of gene transcriptional regulation by AhR, including the nature of the ligand as such and its further metabolism by AhR-induced enzymes, the local tissue microenvironment, and the presence of coregulators or specific transcription factors in the cell.
  • 2.2K
  • 07 Dec 2021
Topic Review
T Lymphocyte
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EV) of endosomal origin (multivesicular bodies, MVB) constitutively released by many different eukaryotic cells by fusion of MVB to the plasma membrane. However, inducible exosome secretion controlled by cell surface receptors is restricted to very few cell types and a limited number of cell surface receptors. Among these, exosome secretion is induced in T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes when stimulated at the immune synapse (IS) via T-cell receptor (TCR) and B-cell receptor (BCR), respectively. IS formation by T and B lymphocytes constitutes a crucial event involved in antigen-specific, cellular and humoral immune responses. Upon IS formation by T and B lymphocytes with antigen-presenting cells (APC) the convergence of MVB towards the microtubule organization center (MTOC), and MTOC polarization to the IS, are involved in polarized exosome secretion at the synaptic cleft. This specialized mechanism provides the immune system with a finely-tuned strategy to increase the specificity and efficiency of crucial secretory effector functions of B and T lymphocytes. Since inducible exosome secretion by antigen-receptors is a critical and unique feature of the immune system this entry considers the study of the traffic events leading to polarized exosome secretion at the IS and some of their biological consequences.
  • 2.1K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Gastrointestinal Diseases in Primary Immunodeficiencies
In recent years, the incidence of immune-mediated gastrointestinal disorders, including celiac disease (CeD) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), is increasingly growing worldwide. It is well established that primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) exhibit gastrointestinal manifestations and mimic other diseases, including CeD and IBD. The most common PIDs in adults are the selective immunoglobulin A deficiency (SIgAD) and the common variable immunodeficiency (CVID). However, some differences concerning diagnostics and management between enteropathy/colitis in PIDs, as compared to idiopathic forms of CeD/IBD, have been described. There is an ongoing discussion whether CeD and IBD in CVID patients should be considered a true CeD and IBD or just CeD-like and IBD-like diseases. This review addresses the current state of the art of the most common primary immunodeficiencies in adults and co-occurring CeD and IBD.
  • 2.1K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Alveolar Epithelium at Homeostasis
The alveolar epithelium serves as a barrier between the body and the external environment. To maintain efficient gas exchange, the alveolar epithelium has evolved to withstand and rapidly respond to an assortment of inhaled, injury-inducing stimuli. Alveolar damage can lead to loss of alveolar fluid barrier function and exuberant, non-resolving inflammation that manifests clinically as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
  • 1.9K
  • 21 Sep 2022
Topic Review
CAR-T Cells in Pancreatic cancer
Pancreatic cancer has the worst prognosis and lowest survival rate among all types of cancers and thus, there exists a strong need for novel therapeutic strategies. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells present a new potential option after successful FDA-approval in hematologic malignancies, however, current CAR T cell clinical trials in pancreatic cancer failed to improve survival and were unable to demonstrate any significant response. The physical and environmental barriers created by the distinct tumor microenvironment (TME) as a result of the desmoplastic reaction in pancreatic cancer present major hurdles for CAR T cells as a viable therapeutic option in this tumor entity. Cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts express extracellular matrix molecules, enzymes, and growth factors, which can attenuate CAR T cell infiltration and efficacy. Recent efforts demonstrate a niche shift where targeting the TME along CAR T cell therapy is believed or hoped to provide a substantial clinical added value to improve overall survival.
  • 1.9K
  • 16 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Vaccine Technology in Bovine Theileriosis
Theileriosis is a blood piroplasmic disease that adversely affects the livestock industry, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by haemoprotozoan of the Theileria genus, transmitted by hard ticks and which possesses a complex life cycle. The infection and treatment method (ITM) is currently used in the control and prevention of T. parva infection, and recombinant vaccines are still under evaluation. The use of gene gun immunization against T. parva infection has been recently evaluated.
  • 1.9K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Epigenetic Regulations of T Cell Differentiation
T cell differentiation is a tightly regulated process. Recent studies have shown that epigenetics plays a significant role at all stages of the differentiation process.  The different stages of T cell differentiation are introduced and recent findings on the epigenetic regulation of this process will be discussed. The epigenetic modifications associated with T cell differentiation related to cancer are discussed as well.
  • 1.9K
  • 18 Jul 2022
Topic Review
CD19-CAR-T Cells
CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T (CD19-CAR-T) cell therapy usually causes B cell aplasia because of “on-target off-tumor” toxicity. The aim of the study was to assess the concept that the introduction of an inhibitory CAR (iCAR) into CAR-T cells could alleviate the side effect of CD19-CAR-T cell therapy. The results showed that CD19-CAR-T cells with a novel KIR/PD-1-based inhibitory CAR (iKP-19-CAR-T) exhibited more naïve, less exhausted phenotypes and preserved a higher proportion of central memory T cells (TCM). Furthermore, iKP-19-CAR-T cells exerted the similar level of cytotoxicity on CD19+HLA-C1- Burkitt’s lymphoma cells compared to CD19-CAR-T cells while sparing CD19+HLA-C1+ healthy human B cells both in vitro and in the xenograft model. Our data demonstrates that the KIR/PD-1-based inhibitory CAR can be a promising strategy to avoid B cell aplasia caused by CD19-CAR-T cell therapy.  
  • 1.9K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Cardiac Glycosides
Cardiac glycosides (CG’s) are naturally occurring biologically active small molecules, used to diagnose a diversity of heart diseases such as congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. The story of CG’s started over 100 years ago when Sir William Withering reported the use of foxglove plant for treating “dropsy” associated with congestive heart failure and the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea) was still in the use for the extraction of Digoxin, a cardiac glycoside used to treat congestive heart failures (Johnson., 2012). The core structure of CGs comprises a steroid nucleus attached to a five-membered lactone ring (cardenolide) or six-membered lactone rings (bufadienolides) along with sugar moieties. Major plant-derived CGs were obtained from plant families of Apocynaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Asparagaceae (Thevitia neriifolia, Neerium oleander, Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata, Urginea maritime, and Strophanthus kombe). Structurally, all these contain a core steroid nucleus connected with sugar moiety at C3 position and lactone moiety at C17 position (Figure 1.3). The pharmacological significance of all the CG’s lies in the core steroid confirmation that contains A/B and C/D cis- portions and the properties such as pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics lie between the confined sugars molecules (Pongrakhananon., 2013). Apart from the plant sources, CG’s were also isolated from several animal species such as bufadienolide was isolated from frogs, and also mammalian tissues contain a cardiac glycoside which is similar to endogenous digitalis (Melero et al., 2000). Quite a few studies have conveyed that the human body does contain a lot more CG’s in different parts. For example, the plasma membrane contains Ouabain and Proscillaridin A and human urine contains digoxin and marinobufagenin whereas human lenses consist of 19-norbufalin (Schoner and Scheiner-Bobis., 2007). In the year 1785, William Withering was the first person to use a digitalis compound from Digitalis purpurea to treat congestive heart failures. Currently, Digoxin is used for treating congestive heart failures. The mechanism of action of Digoxin is that it can inhibit the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase). Living organisms maintain more percentage of K+ within the cell and less percentage of Na+. However, the scenario at the outside of the cell is quite opposite to the intracellular conditions where a high percentage of Na+ and less percentage of K+ will be maintained. Hence, there is a concentration incline that exists between the outside and inside cellular environments, which will be maintained by sodium-potassium pump. The Na+/K+-ATPase is recognized as a transmembrane protein whose functions are to maintain ionic balance in the heart tissue. Na+/K+-ATPase utilizes ATP as the whole energy source, to exchange two K+ ions inside the cell and pushes three Na+ ions outside to maintain intra cellular homeostasis. Also, Na+/K+-ATPase transports glucose and amino acids by keeping less concentration of Na+ within the cell and helps in the maintenance of electrochemical incline. The increment of the Na+ level inside the cell retort to CGs fortifies the ion exchange mechanism. This leads to the expansion of intracellular Ca2+ percentage which therefore promotes organelle instances such as myocardial contractibility, and generates optimistic inotropic effects in the heart cell with CGs (Kaplan., 2002).  
  • 1.9K
  • 12 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Balancing Immune System to Treat Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other autoimmune inflammatory diseases are examples of imbalances within the immune system (disrupted homeostasis) that arise from the effects of an accumulation of environmental and habitual insults over a lifetime, combined with genetic predispositions. The Ligand Epitope Antigen Presentation System (LEAPS) therapies are capable of inhibiting ongoing disease progression in animal models. Whereas DMARDs ablate or inhibit specific proinflammatory cytokines or cells and JAK inhibitors (jakinibs) inhibit the receptor activation cascade for expression of proinflammatory cytokines, the LEAPS therapeutic vaccines specifically modulate the ongoing antigen-specific, disease-driving, proinflammatory T memory cell responses. This decreases disease presentation and changes the cytokine conversation to decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines while increasing the expression of regulatory cytokines. 
  • 1.9K
  • 09 May 2022
Topic Review
Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor
Immunological checkpoint inhibitors (ICPI) are monoclonal antibodies that target the signaling pathways of the immune system that involve the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) molecules, contributing to restore the immune responses against neoplastic cells.
  • 1.8K
  • 26 Oct 2020
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