Sugarcane Bagasse as a Feedstock for Bioethanol Production

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Miguel Prieto Lage	--	3576	2023-11-08 13:13:17	\|
2	layout & references	Sirius Huang	Meta information modification	3576	2023-11-10 02:39:51	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/pr11113116

Lignocellulosic biomass is a powerful approach to produce sustainable biofuels and the further achievement of the goal of biomass conversion into a second-generation clean energy that can cope with the depletion of fossil reserves and rising energy requirements. In the conversion process, a pretreatment is essential to overcome the recalcitrance of the lignocellulosic biomass; accelerate its disintegration into cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin; and, in turn, obtain an optimal yield of fermentable sugars in the enzymatic hydrolysis. In addition to this, it should be industrially scalable and capable of enhancing fuel properties and feedstock processability. Here, steam explosion technology has stood out due to its results and advantages, such as wide applicability, high efficiency in the short term, or lack of contamination despite its conventionality.

steam explosion pretreatment sugarcane bagasse lignocellulosic biomass bioethanol feedstock

1. Introduction

The necessity of finding alternative pathways for power supplementation in a more sustainable way has been promoted because of the current carbon emissions that contribute to climate change ^[1]. Thus, the energy-from-waste (EfW) concept has been introduced as an alternative pathway where the use of refuse-derived flues, household waste and non-hazardous industrial by-products are considered as potential sources for energy production ^[1]. This productive model fits with the sustainable model of circular economy in which the concept ‘end-of-life’ is replaced by reutilization, recycling and recovering. Hence, by-products or wastes from one industry become raw material for another. In addition, another productive model can be easily combined with bio-economy, which promotes the use renewables based on biomass by-products ^[2]. Indeed, in the past years, the production of renewable fuels using lignocellulosic waste from agricultural activities has been considered as an alternative to traditional fuels ^[3]. Agricultural residues are defined as unusable and unstable materials derived from agricultural production which are directly linked to the cultivation of crops, and these materials are characterized by their biodegradability and solid and lignocellulosic composition ^[3]^[4]. In this way, the lignocellulosic non-edible biomass discarded by agriculture feedstock can be used as raw material to obtain biofuel, being considered second-generation (2G) biofuel ^[1]^[5]. Lignocellulosic biomass is mainly composed by cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are low energy-density compounds, so a pretreatment step is necessary so plant-specific enzymes can release sugars for biofuel production ^[5]^[6]. Moreover, 2G biofuels present several advantages compared to first generation biofuels, such as the cheaper non-edible matter used since it is the waste obtained as a result of an industrial activity; no fuel–food competition since non-edible matrices are used; and the reuse of by-products obtained after pretreatment of raw materials to obtain animal fodder to be used, for example, in livestock feed, thus reinforcing the circular economy. In this way, sugarcane bagasse (SCB), wheat, barley, rice and corn straw, and sorghum can be used for bioethanol production ^[7]. In the specific case of sugarcane production, it has an associated production of residues that may reach up to 30% of the production ^[8], which may represent more than 100 MT of residues. This huge volume of residues has several drawbacks. From an economic point of view, they require being effectively managed, which has an associated cost for the industry. From an environmental point of view, they represent a potential source of CO₂ since they are likely to be burned or, if not, accumulated in landfills, which threatens the quality of environmental (i.e., air and water pollution and noise, among others, and their potential consequences) and public health. Therefore, the reutilization of these by-products as part of a circular economy model is key to reduce management costs of residues to sugarcane industries and their negative environmental impact. In fact, their reutilization as raw material for bioethanol production has double benefits. It would avoid the release of this biomass to the environment, and it would promote the use of bioethanol produced using SCB, which is less carbon intensive compared with fossil fuel, so air pollution can be reduced ^[9]. Therefore, these two approaches have the potential of reducing the footprint of sugarcane industries and fuel utilization.

2. Sugarcane Bagasse as a Potential Raw Material for Bioethanol Production

Sugarcane (Saccharum oficinarum L.) is a tropical grass that belongs to the Gramineae family and the Saccharum spp. genus ^[10] and is characterized for being large and perennial. The sugarcane cultivation requirements are 6–12 months to grow with 60–100 cm³ of water ^[11]. Brazil, China and India are the main producers of SCB, with almost 500 MT generated every year from the sugarcane industry, which provides an important contribution to economic development ^[9]^[10]^[12]. SCB yielded the highest crop straw production between 2012 and 2022 according to the Food and Agricultural Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) ^[13]. Sucrose is the main product of sugarcane, which accumulates in the internodes of the stalk ^[9]. However, the percentage of waste generated during sugarcane production varies between 25 and 30% ^[8], which may represent 125–150 MT of residues. The residues produced by the sugarcane industry are mainly two types, and they can be classified as straw, which is the harvest residue, and as bagasse, which is the fibrous fraction after the extraction of the sugarcane stem juice ^[10]. These two by-products are characterized by their lignocellulosic composition, with cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose being the major components and having also extractants and ashes in their composition ^[14]. SCB is composed of approximately 45–50% cellulose, 25–30% hemicellulose, 25% lignin and 2.4–9% ash ^[9]. Nevertheless, this may vary depending on different factors such as chemical composition of the soil, climatic conditions and variety of the crop, among others ^[9]. Table 1 shows variations in the composition of SCB, sugarcane fiber and sugarcane straw. The relative abundances of component units are usually calculated on the basis of the volume integration of the raw material and are expressed in percentage of dried weight ^[15]. The chemical characterization of vegetal biomass is highly relevant for their consideration as potential sources of carbon to produce bioethanol. Indeed, for bioethanol production, it is important to evaluate the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin composition of the raw material ^[9]. Owing to its high yield of sugar and lignocellulosic biomass, SCB is regarded as an excellent alternative energy source to substitute fossil fuels ^[16]^[17].

Table 1. Composition of the main sugarcane chemical compounds expressed in percentage of dried weight.

RM	Pretreatment before Measurement	Cellulose	Hemicellulose	Lignin	Xylan	Sucrose	Ash	Ref.
SCB	Not specified	57.68	12.41	7.89	-	-	2.20	^[18]
SCB	Dried in an oven at 65 °C	29.19	-	-	16.51	25.75	-	^[19]
SCB	Air-dried at 50 °C	36.4	20.1	29.9	-	-	5.4	^[15]
SCF	Dehydration in hot air oven at 60 °C	39.70	36.39	7.37	-	-	5.63	^[20]
SCB	Dried at 105 °C	38.8	26	32.4	-	-	2.8	^[21]
SCS	Air-dried until a 10% final humidity	33.5	27.1	25.8	-	-	2.5	^[22]
SCS	Not specified	44.5	30.4	12.3	-	-	7.5	^[23]
SCB	Non-treated	40.1	23.8	23.6	-	-	3.5	^[24]
SCB	Non-treated	38.7	23	16.9	-	-	-	^[25]
SCB	Air-dried at NST	43.1	31.1	11.4	-	-	5.5	^[26]
SCB	Not specified	57.68	12.41	7.89	-	-	2.20	^[18]

Abbreviations: RM: raw material; SCB: sugarcane bagasse; SCF: sugarcane fibers; SCS: sugarcane straw; NST: no specified temperature.

As stated above, biomass characterization is a noteworthy step for establishing optimal process conditions. Hence, delineating the specificities of SCB as a lignocellulosic feedstock is key to its close scalability. Concerning these aspects, several authors ^[22] conducted a study in which 60 bagasse samples were characterized. The results provided the following average of the structural compounds of SCB: 42.2% of cellulose, 27.6% of hemicelluloses, 21.6% of lignin, 5.63% of extractives and 2.84% of ashes. As can be seen in Table 1, the composition of the samples did not differ substantially between them. This research supports the vantage of using SBC for obtaining bioethanol since the bioethanol yield is closely related to the biomass composition.

Moreover, the composition of feedstocks tends to vary depending on a large number of factors, so the stability of SCB may be considered an important advantage over other raw materials ^[27]. Another work serves as example of the potential of SCB to obtain bioethanol ^[28], where the authors considered the biorefinery route to convert SCB into various products, such as nanocrystalline cellulose, lignin and biohydrogen. They further outlined the rationale for selecting SCB as feedstock, arguing the availability of surplus bagasse, elimination of logistics, lower pretreatment costs, and additional revenue for the industry in the off-season. The findings revealed how over 80% of the SCB biomass was biorefined to yield the target products with a zero-liquid discharge strategy ^[28]. Another different point from SCB is the fact that it usually provides a high organic content (>90% on a total solids basis) which results in a high theoretical biofuel yield ^[29]. It is emphasized that SGB is in a niche as it is being used on a large scale for bioenergy and biorefinery, and therefore provides a training ground for new innovative technologies ^[30]. To move further away from the chemical composition of SCB, the world’s annual SCB has a lignocellulose potential of 243 million tons, or 4.3 EJ on an energy basis, equal to 6.8% of the world’s current bioenergy supply. It completes to give prominence to the potential of SCB lignocellulose compared to other feedstocks and its value as a renewable resource ^[29]^[30]. Since cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin have a high association, it is necessary to apply a pretreatment method that disrupts the plant cell wall organization so the polysaccharides can be more accessible to enzymes ^[7]. As a suitable application of SE as pretreatment for bioethanol production using lignocellulosic biomass, SCB has been studied as a potential feedstock by different authors ^[15]^[31]^[32].

As previously explained, SE pretreatment achieves hemicellulose hydrolysis, lignin transformation and cellulose crystallization by applying high temperatures (160–270 °C) and pressurized steam (20–50 bar) for a time that varies between seconds and minutes ^[33]. Therefore, when SE is applied, there are different parameters affecting the sugar release off the feedstock. The most relevant ones include particle size, temperature, residence time and the combination of temperature and residence time, also named SF ^[33]. In this way, the different applications of SE using SCB have been optimized by several authors. Their achievements and conclusions are presented below. For instance, Espirito Santo et al. ^[34] studied SE applied in SCB at different conditions, including the combinatorial use of SE with H₂SO₄ and SE with H₃PO₄. A better cellulose yield was achieved when SE was simply applied since the combined used with H₃PO₄ led to higher lignin yield, whereas the incorporation of H₂SO₄ led to a higher hemicellulose yield, as it is shown in Table 2. The optimized time, pressure and temperature conditions where the cellulose released was the highest for each pretreatment were 200 °C, 10.5 min, 14.2 atm (SE); 180 °C, 4 min, 10 atm (SE + H₂SO₄); and 195 °C, 7.5 min, 14.2 atm (SE + H₃PO₄) ^[34]. Moreover, results obtained in this study showed that SE pretreatments using high temperature and short residence time lead to better yields than the combination of low temperature and long residence time. This phenomenon is explained because of the accumulation of fermentation inhibitory by-products, such as organic acids, furan compounds and phenolic acids, that ultimately lead to yield losses ^[34]. Other authors also studied the SCB pretreatment with SE. Results showed how short residence time pretreatments lead to better hemicellulose removal, in agreement with the outcomes of other previously published studies ^[35]. The results indicated that the higher removal of hemicellulose and lignin was obtained when operational conditions of SE were 210 °C, 15 min and 1% of H₂O₂, achieving 92.4 and 29.7% removal, respectively ^[35]. Researchers also compared SE and acid hydrolysis (AH) applied in SCB to obtain bioethanol ^[36]. Their results showed a six-times higher carbohydrate yield when SE was applied when compared to AH. Moreover, the negative impact of long residence time was confirmed since results showed that pretreatment over 30 min leads to lower total amount of carbohydrates ^[36]. In fact, the higher yields of carbohydrates obtained in this study were when SE was applied with 160 °C, 30 min and 6.805 atm, as it is shown in Table 2 ^[36]. Autohydrolysis (AHS) of SCB was also studied as an environmentally friendly pretreatment to obtain bioethanol. In fact, the authors ran a study where AHS pretreatment was applied in SCB matrix to obtain xylooligosaccharides ^[37]. The yields achieved after this pretreatment ranged from 51.88 to 66.67% of bioethanol. The differences obtained were related to the use of a buffer solution that the stabilized pH and led to a maintenance of both cellulose and yeast activity ^[37]. A novel pretreatment methodology applied to SCB was run by Duy The Pan and Chung-Sung Tan by using supercritical CO₂ ^[38]. The authors compared the glucose recovery obtained after 72 h of enzymatic hydrolysis with three pretreatments: single supercritical CO₂, supercritical CO₂ followed by H₂O₂ and supercritical CO₂ followed by ultrasound. The higher glucose recovery, with a yield of 97.8%, was obtained when supercritical CO₂ was combined with H₂O₂. Moreover, this pretreatment was the only capable of increasing the glucose recovery after 48 h of enzymatic hydrolysis ^[38]. Considering that one shortcoming of obtaining bioethanol from SCB is the inhibition produced by different compounds, including lignin, the authors ran a study where sequential NaOH and hydroxymethylation pretreatment was applied ^[39]. The authors compared this sequential process with the single alkaline pretreatment, achieving an increment of 13% of bioethanol, which was linked to the lower lignin content found in the sequential NaOH pretreatment followed by a hydroxymethylation process ^[39].

Table 2. Comparison of bioethanol and other compounds recovery considering different sugarcane bagasse (SCB) pretreatments.

Pretreatment	Operational Conditions			Recovery (%)	Ref.
Pretreatment	Temp (°C)	Time (min)	Pressure (atm)	Recovery (%)	Ref.
SE+AHS	195	7.5	18	73.8 bEtOH, 0.58 g/L/h EtOH	^[7]
AHS	200	10	-	51.88–66.67 bEtOH (11.96 g/L)	^[37]
K₃PO₄ 6.4%	144	60	-	53.04 bEtOH	^[40]
SE	160	30	6.8	>150 mg/g TC, 87.16 mg/mL EtOH	^[36]
H₂SO₄ 10%	100	60	-	251.1 mg/g TC, 58.7 mg/mL EtOH	^[36]
SE+H₂O₂	210	15	-	86.9 C; 92.4 HM; 29.7 Lig	^[35]
SF-CO₂+H₂O₂	187	60	154	97.8 Glu	^[38]
SF-CO₂+Ultrasound		240		65.8 Glu
SF-CO₂		-		>55 Glu
NaOH 0.7%	70	360	-	53.3–68.8 Glu; 67.8–74.7 xylose ⟶ 10.67 g/L	^[39]
NH₄-OH-H₂O₂+IL	100	360	-	87.4 Glu; 55.5 glucan; 19.8 xylan 0.42 g EtOH/g G, 14.1 g/L EtOH	^[25]
Imidazole	160	60	-	55.7 solid	^[25]
HOAc	107	30–90	-	80 bEtOH	^[41]
Na₂CO₃	195	15	-	69.1 C; 4.1 HM; 9.5 lignin ⟶ 16.1 g EtOH/100 g biomass	^[26]
SE	200	10.5	14.2	52 C; 3.9 HM; 33.1 Lig	^[34]
SE+H₂SO₄	180	4	10	50.5 C; 6.9 HM; 30.8 Lig
SE+H₃PO₄	195	7.5	14.2	50.2 C; 2.7 HM; 35.2 Lig

Abbreviations: SE: steam explosion; AHS: autohydrolysis; SW: subcritical water; EtOH: ethanol; bEtOH: bioethanol; TC: total carbohydrates; IL: ionic liquid; HOAc: acetic acid; Glu: glucose; C: cellulose; HM: hemicellulos; Lig: lignin.

Overall, and as it is shown in Table 2, there are several works that have studied the suitability of SE and other pretreatments in SCB as biomass. In this way, SE has shown successful results that strongly support the application of this pretreatment to produce bioethanol through the reutilization of SCB.

3. Steam Explosion as Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment

SE was pioneered and patented as a biomass pretreatment process in 1926 by Mason ^[42]. SE pretreatment is a physicochemical modification technology that couples autohydrolysis and biomass alteration through high temperature and explosive decompression with application in food raw materials ^[32]. SE processes can be operated in continuous or batch mode. Batch reactors are usually used for laboratory-scale pretreatment, while continuous systems are typically used for large-scale industrial processes ^[32]^[42]. The lignocellulosic materials that can be treated with SE are extensively diverse ^[43]. Indeed, its competence has been successfully demonstrated in the fractionation of a broad range of lignocellulosic raw materials, such as wheat straw, hay, SCB, corn stover, birch wood and numerous other chemical platforms from a large range of lignocellulosic feedstocks ^[44]^[45]. Figure 1A shows a schematic diagram of the continuous operation process of SE using SCB as biomass where the main three parts of the equipment are represented: steam generator, steam explosion chamber, and material receiving container ^[46].

Figure 1. An insight into steam explosion (SE) pretreatment for bioethanol production using sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as biomass. (A). Diagram of industrial SE pretreatment of SCB for bioethanol production. (B). Structural changes of SCB during SE pretreatment. (C). By-products obtained after applying the steam explosion pretreatment in sugarcane biomass.

The SE process is usually divided into two independent stages. An initial one where the vapor boiling and explosion phase takes place, hence along this stag thermochemical reactions operate. For this, SE presses steam at high pressure (1–3.5 MPa) and temperature (180–240 °C) into cell walls and plant tissues for an abbreviated period (30 s) to several minutes (20 min). The second phase, in which physical tearing occurs, is a process of adiabatic expansion and conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy ^[47]^[48]. Thus, its high throughput relies on combination of the thermochemical action of high-temperature boiling coupled with the physical tearing action of instantaneous blasting ^[32]^[46]^[49]. Temperature and residence time are known as the combined pretreatment severity factor (SF). In this regard, the recalcitrance of the biomass (e.g., lignin content) to the hydrolysis process is one of the conditions that most affects this factor ^[44]^[50]. Generally, SF is utilized in the analysis of reaction kinetics with solid and liquid phases involved. In this way, the aim of the SF calculation is to come up with a pretreatment strategy approach that fulfills the expected requirements for the product and the process ^[51]. Specifically, the SF was designed to enable both process monitoring and prediction of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin after pretreatment. The effects of pretreatment are assumed to follow first-order kinetics and to fit to the Arrhenius equation ^[52]^[53]. Hence, SF is an influential parameter that defines the relationship between hydrothermal severity (operating conditions and physicochemical changes) and lignocellulosic biomass fractionation ^[54], and provides an estimation of the intensity of the SE treatment. Indeed, to reach the maximal efficiency of SE pretreatment, it is required to optimize the factors that modulate the toughness of the pretreatment conditions. The inter-dependence of these factors (SF) is calculated through R₀, a parameter that may be considered as a scaling strategy for a batch operation of the SE reactor (Equation (1)).

(R_{0} = e^{T e x p - 100 / 14.75})

It is calculated by combining the lignocellulose pretreatment reaction time and temperature related to the boiling point of pure water into one single parameter, where, T_exp refers to the experimental temperature. Therefore, 100 is the reference temperature and 14.75 is the arbitrary constant ω being the activation energy of the first order kinetics ^[55].

Other influencing factors are biomass particle size, moisture content, the rate of diffusion of vapor and liquid through the particle, the ratio of solid to liquid loaded in the SE container, the presence of chemical solvents involved in previous steps, or the addition of a chemical catalyst prior to steam pretreatment ^[44]^[50]^[56]. To determine the optimal combinations of these factors, it would be required to carry out an endless series of experiments which are strongly minimized through the application of statistical designs of the experiments ^[57].

To propose the development of a factorial experiment that will cover all possible combinations of the selected levels, considering the impact of all factors and the interactions between them, would serve as a powerful tool that brings the most comprehensive insight into the behavior of the system ^[58]. For example, in a work assessing the influence of pretreatment SF on the fractionation of softwood using a protic acidic ionic liquid, the statistical analysis consisted of the design of a three-level business requirement document (BRD)/response surface method (RSM) involving three key pretreatment variables. Thus, the respective levels of each variable were 20, 30 and 40 min (time); 160, 170 and 180 °C (temperature); and 70, 80 and 90 wt%, while the response was the extraction of lignin. The key conditions of the process made it possible to achieve a quick pretreatment, which yielded a pulp rich in highly digestible cellulose (>90% glucose yield) ^[52].

In a deeper way, in the above two vapor explosion phases, the following processes are principally involved: acid hydrolysis, thermal degradation, mechanical fracture, hydrogen bond breakdown and structural rearrangement ^[46]. Subsequently, these stages will be developed focusing on a specific feedstock. Figure 1B shows the structural changes of the three main components of lignocellulosic biomass during SE pretreatment. This hydrolysis leads to the decomposition of the lignocellulosic raw material by the alteration of the chemical structure of lignin. Lignin depolymerizes by cleavage of the β-O-4 bonds, and the fragments condense, giving rise to a more stable polymer ^[59]. This depolymerization may eventually trigger a partial removal and/or redistribution of lignin ^[60]. The alteration of the native lignin structure and its redeposition in the pretreated biomass are complicated interactions. They are dependent on the source of the biomass and the detailed heat and mass transfer reactions occurring inside the specific SE reactor and still require intensive investigation ^[61]. Therefore, the removal of biomass components such as hemicelluloses and lignin will lead to a significant increase in glucose yield after enzymatic hydrolysis ^[62]. This increase in yield can range from 20% to 85%, depending in many cases on the severity conditions used during SE ^[63]. Thus, the benefits of hydrolysis, apart from enhancing the extractability of lignin polymer, result in the enhancement of the biodegradability of the raw material. More specifically it involves the release of mono- and oligosaccharides, the improvement of cellulose accessibility and the reduction in the crystallinity index of the holocellulosic content ^[64]^[65]. In the case of cellulose, it suffers nearly no structural changes, it is mostly retained in its original form, and only mild depolymerization occurs under soft reaction conditions. However, apart from the solubilization of carbohydrate polymers into soluble sugars (mainly glucose, xylose and arabinose), the pretreatment also results in the formation of lignocellulosic by-products, as illustrated by Figure 1C ^[66].

Nowadays, SE is considered to be the only physical pretreatment method that can be applied alone or in combination with other chemical pretreatments to efficiently delignify biomass ^[67]. This has often been combined, for example, with wet oxidation intended to treat larger particle sizes and to operate with higher substrate loadings ^[68]. Further outstanding benefits of SE pretreatment are the extensive hydrolysis of hemicellulose polymers and the reduction in biomass particle size ^[13]^[61]. Smaller particles have more available surface area and the lignin droplets act as a binder, which improves particle-to-particle contact and binding capacity ^[32]. Also, SE has a high potential for energy efficiency, low capital investment, and lower environmental impact compared to other pretreatment technologies. ^[69]. Nonetheless, a significant contribution of studies is still needed to propose an economically valuable utilization of biomasses such as SCB and to explore the different limitations that may arise when selecting a pretreatment as SE.

References

Soares de Carvalho Freitas, E.; Xavier, L.H.; Oliveira, L.B.; Guarieiro, L.L.N. System Dynamics Applied to Second Generation Biofuel in Brazil: A Circular Economy Approach. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2022, 52, 102288.
D’Amato, D.; Korhonen, J.; Toppinen, A. Circular, Green, and Bio Economy: How Do Companies in Land-Use Intensive Sectors Align with Sustainability Concepts? Ecol. Econ. 2019, 158, 116–133.
Khaire, K.C.; Moholkar, V.S.; Goyal, A. Bioconversion of Sugarcane Tops to Bioethanol and Other Value Added Products: An Overview. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 2021, 4, 54–68.
Moharana, C. (Ed.) Agriculture Waste Management and Bioresource, 1st ed.; Wiley: Pondicherry, India, 2023; ISBN 9781119808138.
Kesharwani, R.; Sun, Z.; Dagli, C.; Xiong, H. Moving Second Generation Biofuel Manufacturing Forward: Investigating Economic Viability and Environmental Sustainability Considering Two Strategies for Supply Chain Restructuring. Appl. Energy 2019, 242, 1467–1496.
Kirshner, J.; Brown, E.; Dunlop, L.; Franco Cairo, J.P.; Redeker, K.; Veneu, F.; Brooks, S.; Kirshner, S.; Walton, P.H. “A Future beyond Sugar”: Examining Second-Generation Biofuel Pathways in Alagoas, Northeast Brazil. Environ. Dev. 2022, 44, 100739.
Neves, P.V.; Pitarelo, A.P.; Ramos, L.P. Production of Cellulosic Ethanol from Sugarcane Bagasse by Steam Explosion: Effect of Extractives Content, Acid Catalysis and Different Fermentation Technologies. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 208, 184–194.
Vaish, S.; Kaur, G.; Sharma, N.K.; Gakkhar, N. Estimation for Potential of Agricultural Biomass Sources as Projections of Bio-Briquettes in Indian Context. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5077.
Niju, S.; Swathika, M. Delignification of Sugarcane Bagasse Using Pretreatment Strategies for Bioethanol Production. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2019, 20, 101263.
Antunes, F.; Mota, I.F.; da Silva Burgal, J.; Pintado, M.; Costa, P.S. A Review on the Valorization of Lignin from Sugarcane By-Products: From Extraction to Application. Biomass Bioenergy 2022, 166, 106603.
Moore, P.H. Sugarcane and Sugarbeet. In Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences; Elselvier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 273–280.
Bhardwaj, N.K.; Kaur, D.; Chaudhry, S.; Sharma, M.; Arya, S. Approaches for Converting Sugarcane Trash, a Promising Agro Residue, into Pulp and Paper Using Soda Pulping and Elemental Chlorine-Free Bleaching. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 217, 225–233.
Gao, Z.; Alshehri, K.; Li, Y.; Qian, H.; Sapsford, D.; Cleall, P.; Harbottle, M. Advances in Biological Techniques for Sustainable Lignocellulosic Waste Utilization in Biogas Production. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 170, 112995.
del Río, J.C.; Lino, A.G.; Colodette, J.L.; Lima, C.F.; Gutiérrez, A.; Martínez, Á.T.; Lu, F.; Ralph, J.; Rencoret, J. Differences in the Chemical Structure of the Lignins from Sugarcane Bagasse and Straw. Biomass Bioenergy 2015, 81, 322–338.
Pereira Marques, F.; Lima Soares, A.K.; Lomonaco, D.; Alexandre e Silva, L.M.; Tédde Santaella, S.; de Freitas Rosa, M.; Carrhá Leitão, R. Steam Explosion Pretreatment Improves Acetic Acid Organosolv Delignification of Oil Palm Mesocarp Fibers and Sugarcane Bagasse. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 175, 304–312.
Huang, J.; Khan, M.T.; Perecin, D.; Coelho, S.T.; Zhang, M. Sugarcane for Bioethanol Production: Potential of Bagasse in Chinese Perspective. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 133, 110296.
Valim, I.C.; Rego, A.S.C.; Queiroz, A.; Brant, V.; Neto, A.A.F.; Vilani, C.; Santos, B.F. Use of Artificial Intelligence to Experimental Conditions Identification in the Process of Delignification of Sugarcane Bagasse from Supercritical Carbon Dioxide; Elsevier Masson SAS: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; Volume 43, ISBN 9780444642356.
Farias, J.P.; Okeke, B.C.; De Ávila, F.D.; Demarco, C.F.; Silva, M.S.; Camargo, F.A.d.O.; Menezes Bento, F.; Pieniz, S.; Andreazza, R. Biotechnology Process for Microbial Lipid Synthesis from Enzymatic Hydrolysate of Pre-Treated Sugarcane Bagasse for Potential Bio-Oil Production. Renew. Energy 2023, 205, 174–184.
Qiu, Z.; Han, X.; Fu, A.; Jiang, Y.; Zhang, W.; Jin, C.; Li, D.; Xia, J.; He, J.; Deng, Y.; et al. Enhanced Cellulosic D-Lactic Acid Production from Sugarcane Bagasse by Pre-Fermentation of Water-Soluble Carbohydrates before Acid Pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 2023, 368, 128324.
Hongrattanavichit, I.; Aht-Ong, D. Nanofibrillation and Characterization of Sugarcane Bagasse Agro-Waste Using Water-Based Steam Explosion and High-Pressure Homogenization. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 277, 123471.
Da Silva, A.S.A.; Inoue, H.; Endo, T.; Yano, S.; Bon, E.P.S. Milling Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse and Straw for Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ethanol Fermentation. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 7402–7409.
Costa, S.M.; Mazzola, P.G.; Silva, J.C.A.R.; Pahl, R.; Pessoa, A.; Costa, S.A. Use of Sugar Cane Straw as a Source of Cellulose for Textile Fiber Production. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 42, 189–194.
Gómez, E.O.; de Souza, R.T.G.; Rocha, G.J.d.M.; de Almeida, E.; Cortez, L.A.B. Sugarcane Trash as Feedstock for Second Generation Processes. In Sugarcane Bioethanol—R&D for Productivity and Sustainability; Editora Edgard Blucher Ltda.: São Paulo, Brazil, 2014; pp. 637–660.
Espírito Santo, M.C.D.; Cardoso, E.B.; Guimaraes, F.E.G.; deAzevedo, E.R.; da Cunha, G.P.; Novotny, E.H.; Pellegrini, V.D.O.A.; Chandel, A.K.; Silveira, M.H.L.; Polikarpov, I. Multifaceted Characterization of Sugarcane Bagasse under Different Steam Explosion Severity Conditions Leading to Distinct Enzymatic Hydrolysis Yields. Ind. Crops Prod. 2019, 139, 111542.
Zhu, Z.; Zhu, M.; Wu, Z. Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse with NH4OH–H2O2 and Ionic Liquid for Efficient Hydrolysis and Bioethanol Production. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 119, 199–207.
Martín, C.; Klinke, H.B.; Thomsen, A.B. Wet Oxidation as a Pretreatment Method for Enhancing the Enzymatic Convertibility of Sugarcane Bagasse. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 2007, 40, 426–432.
Rocha, G.J.d.M.; Nascimento, V.M.; Gonçalves, A.R.; Silva, V.F.N.; Martín, C. Influence of Mixed Sugarcane Bagasse Samples Evaluated by Elemental and Physical-Chemical Composition. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 64, 52–58.
Katakojwala, R.; Venkata Mohan, S. Multi-Product Biorefinery with Sugarcane Bagasse: Process Development for Nanocellulose, Lignin and Biohydrogen Production and Lifecycle Analysis. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 446, 137233.
Pan, S.; Zabed, H.M.; Wei, Y.; Qi, X. Technoeconomic and Environmental Perspectives of Biofuel Production from Sugarcane Bagasse: Current Status, Challenges and Future Outlook. Ind. Crops Prod. 2022, 188, 115684.
Negrão, D.R.; Grandis, A.; Buckeridge, M.S.; Rocha, G.J.M.; Leal, M.R.L.V.; Driemeier, C. Inorganics in Sugarcane Bagasse and Straw and Their Impacts for Bioenergy and Biorefining: A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 148, 111268.
da Fonseca, Y.A.; Silva, N.C.S.; Fernandes, A.R.A.C.; Faria, M.V.; Adarme, O.F.H.; Passos, F.; Baêta, B.E.L. Steam Explosion Pretreatment of Coffee Husks: A Strategy towards Decarbonization in a Biorefinery Approach. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2022, 97, 1567–1574.
Yu, Y.; Wu, J.; Ren, X.; Lau, A.; Rezaei, H.; Takada, M.; Bi, X.; Sokhansanj, S. Steam Explosion of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Multiple Advanced Bioenergy Processes: A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 154, 111871.
Haghighi Mood, S.; Hossein Golfeshan, A.; Tabatabaei, M.; Salehi Jouzani, G.; Najafi, G.H.; Gholami, M.; Ardjmand, M. Lignocellulosic Biomass to Bioethanol, a Comprehensive Review with a Focus on Pretreatment. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 27, 77–93.
Espirito Santo, M.C.; Fockink, D.H.; Pellegrini, V.O.A.; Guimaraes, F.E.G.; DeAzevedo, E.R.; Ramos, L.P.; Polikarpov, I. Physical Techniques Shed Light on the Differences in Sugarcane Bagasse Structure Subjected to Steam Explosion Pretreatments at Equivalent Combined Severity Factors. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 158, 113003.
Rabelo, S.C.; Vaz Rossell, C.E.; de Moraes Rocha, G.J.; Zacchi, G. Enhancement of the Enzymatic Digestibility of Sugarcane Bagasse by Steam Pretreatment Impregnated with Hydrogen Peroxide. Biotechnol. Prog. 2012, 28, 1207–1217.
Bernier-Oviedo, D.J.; Rincón-Moreno, J.A.; Solanilla-Duqué, J.F.; Muñoz-Hernández, J.A.; Váquiro-Herrera, H.A. Comparison of Two Pretreatments Methods to Produce Second-Generation Bioethanol Resulting from Sugarcane Bagasse. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 122, 414–421.
Zhang, W.; Zhang, X.; Lei, F.; Jiang, J. Co-Production Bioethanol and Xylooligosaccharides from Sugarcane Bagasse via Autohydrolysis Pretreatment. Renew. Energy 2020, 162, 2297–2305.
Phan, D.T.; Tan, C.S. Innovative Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse Using Supercritical CO2 Followed by Alkaline Hydrogen Peroxide. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 167, 192–197.
Jin, Y.; Shi, Z.; Xu, G.; Yang, H.; Yang, J. A Stepwise Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse by Alkaline and Hydroxymethyl Reagent for Bioethanol Production. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 145, 112136.
Fu, Y.; Gao, H.; Yu, H.; Yang, Q.; Peng, H.; Liu, P.; Li, Y.; Hu, Z.; Zhang, R.; Li, J.; et al. Specific Lignin and Cellulose Depolymerization of Sugarcane Bagasse for Maximum Bioethanol Production under Optimal Chemical Fertilizer Pretreatment with Hemicellulose Retention and Liquid Recycling. Renew. Energy 2022, 200, 1371–1381.
Zhao, X.; Wen, J.; Chen, H.; Liu, D. The Fate of Lignin during Atmospheric Acetic Acid Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse and the Impacts on Cellulose Enzymatic Hydrolyzability for Bioethanol Production. Renew. Energy 2018, 128, 200–209.
Bandyopadhyay-Ghosh, S.; Ghosh, S.B.; Sain, M. The Use of Biobased Nanofibres in Composites. In Biofiber Reinforcements in Composite Materials; Faruk, O.M.S., Ed.; Elsevier Ltd.: Pilani, India, 2015; p. 647. ISBN 9781782421276.
Galbe, M.; Wallberg, O. Pretreatment for Biorefineries: A Review of Common Methods for Efficient Utilisation of Lignocellulosic Materials. Biotechnol. Biofuels 2019, 12, 294.
Michalak, L.; Knutsen, S.H.; Aarum, I.; Westereng, B. Effects of PH on Steam Explosion Extraction of Acetylated Galactoglucomannan from Norway Spruce. Biotechnol. Biofuels 2018, 11, 311.
Zhao, Z.M.; Yu, W.; Huang, C.; Xue, H.; Li, J.; Zhang, D.; Li, G. Steam Explosion Pretreatment Enhancing Enzymatic Digestibility of Overground Tubers of Tiger Nut (Cyperus esculentus L.). Front. Nutr. 2023, 9, 1093277.
Ma, C.; Ni, L.; Guo, Z.; Zeng, H.; Wu, M.; Zhang, M.; Zheng, B. Principle and Application of Steam Explosion Technology in Modification of Food Fiber. Foods 2022, 11, 3370.
Ziegler-Devin, I.; Chrusciel, L.; Brosse, N. Steam Explosion Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Mini-Review of Theorical and Experimental Approaches. Front. Chem. 2021, 9, 705358.
Yu, Z.; Zhang, B.; Yu, F.; Xu, G.; Song, A. A Real Explosion: The Requirement of Steam Explosion Pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 121, 335–341.
Capolupo, L.; Faraco, V. Green Methods of Lignocellulose Pretreatment for Biorefinery Development. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016, 100, 9451–9467.
Bhukya, B.; Keshav, P.K. An Evaluation of Steam Explosion Pretreatment to Enhance the Digestibility of Lignocellulosic Biomass. In Lignocellulose Bioconversion through White Biotechnology; Chandel, A.K., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Telangana, India, 2022; pp. 83–98. ISBN 9781119735984.
Conrad, M.; Häring, H.; Smirnova, I. Design of an Industrial Autohydrolysis Pretreatment Plant for Annual Lignocellulose. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2021, 11, 2293–2310.
Abouelela, A.R.; Nakasu, P.Y.S.; Hallett, J.P. Influence of Pretreatment Severity Factor and Hammett Acidity on Softwood Fractionation by an Acidic Protic Ionic Liquid. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2023, 11, 2404–2415.
Zhang, Z.; Harrison, M.D.; Rackemann, D.W.; Doherty, W.O.S.; O’Hara, I.M. Organosolv Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Enhanced Enzymatic Saccharification. Green Chem. 2016, 18, 360–381.
Ruiz, H.A.; Galbe, M.; Garrote, G.; Ramirez-Gutierrez, D.M.; Ximenes, E.; Sun, S.N.; Lachos-Perez, D.; Rodríguez-Jasso, R.M.; Sun, R.C.; Yang, B.; et al. Severity Factor Kinetic Model as a Strategic Parameter of Hydrothermal Processing (Steam Explosion and Liquid Hot Water) for Biomass Fractionation under Biorefinery Concept. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 342, 125961.
Walker, D.J.; Gallagher, J.; Winters, A.; Somani, A.; Ravella, S.R.; Bryant, D.N. Process Optimization of Steam Explosion Parameters on Multiple Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Taguchi Method—A Critical Appraisal. Front. Energy Res. 2018, 6, 1–13.
Steinbach, D.; Kruse, A.; Sauer, J. Pretreatment Technologies of Lignocellulosic Biomass in Water in View of Furfural and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Production- A Review. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2017, 7, 247–274.
Sulzenbacher, D.; Atzmüller, D.; Hawe, F.; Richter, M.; Cristobal-Sarramian, A.; Zwirzitz, A. Optimization of Steam Explosion Parameters for Improved Biotechnological Use of Wheat Straw. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2023, 13, 1035–1046.
Jankovic, A.; Chaudhary, G.; Goia, F. Designing the Design of Experiments (DOE)—An Investigation on the Influence of Different Factorial Designs on the Characterization of Complex Systems. Energy Build. 2021, 250, 111298.
Shrotri, A.; Kobayashi, H.; Fukuoka, A. Catalytic Conversion of Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin to Chemicals, 1st ed.; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; Volume 60.
Auxenfans, T.; Crônier, D.; Chabbert, B.; Paës, G. Understanding the Structural and Chemical Changes of Plant Biomass Following Steam Explosion Pretreatment. Biotechnol. Biofuels 2017, 10, 36.
Leskinen, T.; Kelley, S.S.; Argyropoulos, D.S. E-Beam Irradiation & Steam Explosion as Biomass Pretreatment, and the Complex Role of Lignin in Substrate Recalcitrance. Biomass Bioenergy 2017, 103, 21–28.
Steinbach, D.; Kruse, A.; Sauer, J.; Storz, J. Is Steam Explosion a Promising Pretreatment for Acid Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass? Processes 2020, 8, 1626.
Troncoso-Ortega, E.; Castillo, R.D.P.; Reyes-Contreras, P.; Castaño-Rivera, P.; Teixeira Mendonça, R.; Schiappacasse, N.; Parra, C. Effects on Lignin Redistribution in Eucalyptus Globulus Fibres Pre-Treated by Steam Explosion: A Microscale Study to Cellulose Accessibility. Biomolecules 2021, 11, 507.
He, Q.; Ziegler-Devin, I.; Chrusciel, L.; Obame, S.N.; Hong, L.; Lu, X.; Brosse, N. Lignin-First Integrated Steam Explosion Process for Green Wood Adhesive Application. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 5380–5392.
Onyenwoke, C.; Tabil, L.G.; Dumonceaux, T.; Cree, D.; Mupondwa, E.; Adapa, P.; Karunakaran, C. Investigation of Steam Explosion Pretreatment of Sawdust and Oat Straw to Improve Their Quality as Biofuel Pellets. Energies 2022, 15, 7168.
Monlau, F.; Sambusiti, C.; Barakat, A.; Quéméneur, M.; Trably, E.; Steyer, J.P.; Carrère, H. Do Furanic and Phenolic Compounds of Lignocellulosic and Algae Biomass Hydrolyzate Inhibit Anaerobic Mixed Cultures? A Comprehensive Review. Biotechnol. Adv. 2014, 32, 934–951.
Baksi, S.; Saha, D.; Saha, S.; Sarkar, U.; Basu, D.; Kuniyal, J.C. Pre-Treatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass: Review of Various Physico-Chemical and Biological Methods Influencing the Extent of Biomass Depolymerization. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 20, 13895–13922.
Brodeur, G.; Yau, E.; Badal, K.; Collier, J.; Ramachandran, K.B.; Ramakrishnan, S. Chemical and Physicochemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Review. Enzym. Res. 2011, 2011, 787532.
Zhao, G.; Kuang, G.; Wang, Y.; Yao, Y.; Zhang, J.; Pan, Z.H. Effect of Steam Explosion on Physicochemical Properties and Fermentation Characteristics of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). Lwt 2020, 129, 109579.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Agricultural Engineering

Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Paula Barciela

Ana Perez-Vazquez

Maria Fraga-Corral

Miguel A. Prieto

View Times: 157

Update Date: 10 Nov 2023

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm

1. Introduction

2. Sugarcane Bagasse as a Potential Raw Material for Bioethanol Production

3. Steam Explosion as Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment

References