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Topic Review
Exposure Routes of Micro and Nanoplastics to Human
Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles that range from 1 μm to less than 5 mm, while nanoplastics (NPs) are plastic particles smaller than 1 μm. MNPLs are mainly classified in two ways—primary or secondary—taking into account their origin. Primary MNPLs are plastic particles intentionally manufactured to have a small size (1 μm to less than 5 mm), e.g., pellet beads, which are used as raw material for the production of cosmetics, such as toothpastes, exfoliating treatments, body wash, and other personal care products.
  • 586
  • 22 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Exposure to Plastic Monomer and Plasticizer Bisphenol A
The plastic monomer and plasticizer bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most widely used chemicals. BPA is present in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, commonly used in food storage and industrial or medical products. However, the use of this synthetic compound is a growing concern, as BPA is an endocrine-disrupting compound and can bind mainly to estrogen receptors, interfering with different functions at the cardiovascular level.
  • 694
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Extreme Points of Earth
This is a list of extreme points of Earth, the geographical locations that are farther north or south than, higher or lower in elevation than, or farthest inland or out to sea from, any other locations on the landmasses, continents or countries. For other lists of extreme points on Earth, including places that hold temperature and weather records, see Extremes on Earth, Lists of extreme points, and List of weather records.
  • 7.4K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Extreme Weather Events of 535–536
The extreme weather events of 535–536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years. The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil, possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption conjectured to be either in Asia, the Americas, Europe, or other locations. Its effects were widespread, causing unseasonable weather, crop failures, and famines worldwide.
  • 3.0K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Extremely Acidic Eukaryotic (Micro) Organisms
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) results from sulfide oxidation, which incorporates hydrogen ions, sulfate, and metals/metalloids into the aquatic environment, allowing fixation, bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants in the aquatic food chain. Acidic leachates from waste rock dams from pyritic and (to a lesser extent) coal mining are the main foci of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) production. 
  • 622
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Extremophilic Microorganisms in Central Europe
“Extremophiles”, first introduced in 1974, describes organisms that thrive in environments where one or more physical or chemical parameters are beyond most organisms’ normal optimal range. They can be broadly separated into two categories: extremophilic organisms that require one or more extreme conditions to grow and extremotolerant organisms that can tolerate harsh conditions but grow optimally in a milder environment
  • 668
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
F-Ratio
In oceanic biogeochemistry, the f-ratio is the fraction of total primary production fuelled by nitrate (as opposed to that fuelled by other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium). The ratio was originally defined by Richard Eppley and Bruce Peterson in one of the first papers estimating global oceanic production. This fraction was originally believed significant because it appeared to directly relate to the sinking (export) flux of organic marine snow from the surface ocean by the biological pump. However, this interpretation relied on the assumption of a strong depth-partitioning of a parallel process, nitrification, that more recent measurements has questioned.
  • 612
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Factors Affecting Akinete Germination and the Ranges of Tolerances
Eutrophic freshwater ecosystems are vulnerable to toxin-producing cyanobacteria growth or harmful algal blooms. Cyanobacteria belonging to the Nostocales order form akinetes that are similar to the seeds of vascular plants, which are resting cells surrounded by a thick membrane. They overwinter in sediment and germinate when conditions become favorable, eventually developing into vegetative cells and causing blooms. 
  • 256
  • 12 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Factors Affecting Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning
The high levels of biodiversity found in natural ecosystems have positive effects on ecosystem functions (EFs), though the intensity and direction of such effects can vary. This is associated with the impacts of other EF-driving factors.
  • 1.6K
  • 27 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Factors Affecting Economic Benefits of Organic-Rich Shale Conversion
On the basis of the verification of various laboratory simulations and field pilot production, academic and industrial circles have agreed on the technical feasibility of shale-oil exploitation after organic-rich shale in situ conversion. However, the kerogen cracking process is an endothermic reaction that needs to consume a certain amount of energy. In addition, during the heating process, inorganic minerals and water in the shale are heated synchronously and consume a significant amount of heat energy. Meanwhile, due to the long heating time, much of the heat energy of shale is also dissipated into the surrounding rock through heat conduction. In addition to the high heating costs, the required equipment for in situ conversion is more expensive. Therefore, many experts and companies are concerned about the economic feasibility of in situ conversion. The economic feasibility of oil shale in situ conversion depends on whether the energy consumption ratio (value of produced oil and gas products/(heating energy consumption cost + engineering costs)) is higher than 1. Only when the value of the produced petroleum products is significantly greater than the cost of heating energy consumption can it be expected to realize economic benefits through large-scale commercial development, the dilution of engineering, and other costs. Therefore, improving the ratio of the value of oil and gas products to the cost of heating energy consumption is very important.
  • 389
  • 16 Jun 2023
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