Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Subject:
All Disciplines Arts & Humanities Biology & Life Sciences Business & Economics Chemistry & Materials Science Computer Science & Mathematics Engineering Environmental & Earth Sciences Medicine & Pharmacology Physical Sciences Public Health & Healthcare Social Sciences
Sort by:
Most Viewed Latest Alphabetical (A-Z) Alphabetical (Z-A)
Filter:
All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review
History of Purgatory
The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestial Hades" appears in the writings of Plato and Heraclides Ponticus and in many other pagan writers. This concept is distinguished from the Hades of the underworld described in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In contrast, the celestial Hades was understood as an intermediary place where souls spent an undetermined time after death before either moving on to a higher level of existence or being reincarnated back on earth. Its exact location varied from author to author. Heraclides of Pontus thought it was in the Milky Way; the Academicians, the Stoics, Cicero, Virgil, Plutarch, the Hermetical writings situated it between the Moon and the Earth or around the Moon; while Numenius and the Latin Neoplatonists thought it was located between the sphere of the fixed stars and the Earth. Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, we find another intermediate state entering Jewish religious thought in the last centuries B.C.E. In Maccabees we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification a practice accepted by some Christians. The same practice appears in other traditions, such as the medieval Chinese Buddhist practice of making offerings on behalf of the dead, who are said to suffer numerous trials. Among other reasons, Catholic belief in purgatory is based on the practice of prayer for the dead. Descriptions and doctrine regarding purgatory developed over the centuries. Those who believe in purgatory interpret extra-biblical passages such as 2 Maccabees 12:41-46 (not accepted as Scripture by Protestants but recognized by Orthodox and Catholics), and biblical passages such as 2 Timothy 1:18, Matthew 12:32, Luke 16:19-16:26, Luke 23:43, 1 Corinthians 3:11-3:15 and Hebrews 12:29 as support for prayer for the dead, an active interim state for the dead prior to the resurrection, and purifying flames after death. The first Christians looked forward to the imminent return of Christ and did not develop detailed beliefs about the interim state. Gradually, Christians, especially in the West, took an interest in circumstances of the interim state between one's death and the future resurrection. Christians both East and West prayed for the dead in this interim state, although theologians in the East refrained from defining it. Augustine of Hippo distinguished between the purifying fire that saves and eternal consuming fire for the unrepentant. Gregory the Great established a connection between earthly penance and purification after death. All Soul's Day, established in the 10th century, turned popular attention to the condition of departed souls. The idea of Purgatory as a physical place (like heaven and hell) was "born" in the late 11th century. Medieval theologians concluded that the purgatorial punishments consisted of material fire. The Western formulation of purgatory proved to be a sticking point in the Great Schism between East and West. The Catholic Church believes that the living can help those whose purification from their sins is not yet completed not only by praying for them but also by gaining indulgences for them as an act of intercession. The later Middle Ages saw the growth of considerable abuses, such as the unrestricted sale of indulgences by professional "pardoners" sent to collect contributions to projects such as the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These abuses were one of the factors that led to the Protestant Reformation. Most Protestants rejected the idea of purgatory, as never clearly mentioned in Luther's canon of the Bible, which excludes the Deuterocanonical books. Modern Catholic theologians have softened the punitive aspects of purgatory and stress instead the willingness of the dead to undergo purification as preparation for the happiness of heaven The English Anglican scholar John Henry Newman argued, in a book that he wrote before becoming Catholic, that the essence of the doctrine on purgatory is locatable in ancient tradition, and that the core consistency of such beliefs are evidence that Christianity was "originally given to us from heaven".
  • 6.0K
  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1208–1250)
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, King of Sicily (1208–1250). Frederick II of Hohenstaufen was the second king of the Swabian dynasty to sit on the throne of Sicily. He was crowned in 1198, but, in consideration of his young age, he only ruled independently from 1208 to 1250 (the year of his death). He not only held the title of King of Sicily but also was the King of Germany (or of the Romans), the King of Jerusalem, and, above all, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. His most relevant and innovative iconographic representations were in Southern Italy. For this reason, we focus on the images in this geographical context. In particular, we have nine official (that is, those commissioned directly by him or his entourage) representations of him: the bull (in three main versions), the seal (in three main versions), five coins (four denari and one augustale), the statue of the Capua Gate, and the lost image of the imperial palace in Naples.
  • 6.0K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in Madagascar
Located on the East coast of Africa, Madagascar is the world’s fourth-biggest island; Madagascar is host to 12,000 species of vascular plants (96% endemic). Over 90% of all its wildlife is found nowhere else on earth, and 5% of all of the earth’s biodiversity is found in Madagascar. A place where environmental degradation problems have created severe erosion and water quality problems. Despite its biological and cultural diversity, Madagascar is among the poorest countries in the world, with approximately 78% of the population living in extreme poverty with an average income of less than USD 2 per day, and more than three-quarters of the population in rural areas engaged in natural resources dependent livelihood activities. 
  • 6.0K
  • 07 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Landsat 8 and Landsat 9
With the launch of Landsat 9 in September 2021, an optimal opportunity for in-flight cross-calibration occurred when Landsat 9 flew underneath Landsat 8 while being moved into its final orbit. Since the two instruments host nearly identical imaging systems, the underfly event offered ideal cross-calibration conditions. Using the underfly imagery collected by the instruments to estimate cross-calibration parameters for Landsat 9 for a calibration update scheduled at the end of the on-orbit initial verification (OIV) period was studied. Three types of uncertainty were considered: geometric, spectral, and angular (bidirectional reflectance distribution function—BRDF). Differences caused by geometric uncertainty were found to be negligible for this application. 
  • 6.0K
  • 01 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Fluorescein Derivatives
This entry is dealing with fluorescein and its derivatives and focuses on their uses as pH-sensor in a biological context. It gathers chemical properties of the fluorescein family of compounds combined to biological issues. 
  • 6.0K
  • 17 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Belief
In sociology, the concept of beliefs refers to the mental acceptance or conviction that certain statements or propositions are true. Beliefs are subjective and personal convictions that individuals hold about the nature of reality, the social world, and various aspects of life. These cognitive constructs play a fundamental role in shaping human behavior, influencing decision-making processes, and contributing to the formation of individual and collective identities within a society.
  • 6.0K
  • 25 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Sexual Robots
The area of human-robot interaction (HRI), particularly concerning sexual robots, has begun to attract interest in various social issues, such as emotions, ethics, philosophy, and psychology. These new relationships between sexual robots and humans have also awakened the interest of the media, the industry, and the maker world since with a 3D printer, it is already possible to create a sexual robot. Society has begun to consider the idea of having sex with robots, and there is the belief that this will be normal in the future. Although there is still no scientific evidence of its therapeutic benefits, many think it can help treat sexual dysfunctions or even help decrease women’s sexual exploitation. Like sex toys, some experts consider sexual robots (or sexbots) to be the future of sex relationships potentially. 
  • 6.0K
  • 11 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Football Goalkeeper Injuries
Knowledge and research about football goalkeeper (GK) injuries are scarce, which prevents the development of evidence-based injury prevention programs. Fortunately, progress is evident in injury prevention strategies in outfield football players. However, a GK fulfills a unique role, and an injured GK can substantially impact a team. Thus, there is a need to clarify and summarize current knowledge concerning football goalkeeper pain and injuries.
  • 5.9K
  • 31 May 2021
Topic Review
Areca nut
Scientific name:  Areca catechu L. Family: Arecaceae Centre of origin: South-East Asia Common name: kamuhu, adakka, adike, Pinang palm, Betel palm, Areca palm, Supari, Kaunga The generic name is derived from the common name used by the people of the Malabar Coast in southwestern India.
  • 5.9K
  • 16 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Smart City 4.0 Development
The concept of the Smart City emerged as an effect of the research into smart urban environments. The term ‘smart city’ is understood as a city having a certain intellectual ability, which refers to innovative sociotechnical and socioeconomic aspects of growth. It has six dimensions: a smart economy, smart mobility, smart environment, smart people, smart living, and smart governance. Smart Cities 4.0 remain hyper-connected, as they use technology, data and engagement of citizens, but they use it to achieve the objectives of sustainable development.
  • 5.9K
  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
SpaceX Rocket Engines
Since the founding of SpaceX in 2002, the company has developed four families of rocket engines — Merlin, Kestrel, Draco and SuperDraco — and is currently developing another rocket engine: Raptor.
  • 5.9K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Satellite-Based Groundwater Monitoring
Satellite is an effective technology to assess water storages remotely through remote sensing and geographic information system (RS and GIS), which are very useful tools in groundwater exploration mapping. They provide inputs to assess the total groundwater resources in a region and for the selection of suitable sites for drilling or artificial recharge.
  • 5.9K
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Proto-Slavic
Proto-Slavic is the unattested, reconstructed proto-language of all the Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately from the 2nd millennium B.C. through the 6th century A.D. As with most other proto-languages, no attested writings have been found; scholars have reconstructed the language by applying the comparative method to all the attested Slavic languages and by taking into account other Indo-European languages. Rapid development of Slavic speech occurred during the Proto-Slavic period, coinciding with the massive expansion of the Slavic-speaking area. Dialectal differentiation occurred early on during this period, but overall linguistic unity and mutual intelligibility continued for several centuries, into the 10th century or later. During this period, many sound changes diffused across the entire area, often uniformly. This makes it inconvenient to maintain the traditional definition of a proto-language as the latest reconstructable common ancestor of a language group, with no dialectal differentiation. (This would necessitate treating all pan-Slavic changes after the 6th century or so as part of the separate histories of the various daughter languages.) Instead, Slavicists typically handle the entire period of dialectally-differentiated linguistic unity as Common Slavic. One can divide the Proto-Slavic/Common-Slavic time of linguistic unity roughly into three periods: Authorities differ as to which periods should be included in Proto-Slavic and in Common Slavic. The language described in this article generally reflects the middle period, usually termed Late Proto-Slavic (sometimes Middle Common Slavic) and often dated to around the 7th to 8th centuries. This language remains largely unattested, but a late-period variant, representing the late 9th-century dialect spoken around Thessaloniki in Greek Macedonia, is attested in Old Church Slavonic manuscripts.
  • 5.9K
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Positive Psychology
Positive psychology is the scientific study of what makes life most worth living, focusing on both individual and societal well-being. It studies "positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions...it aims to improve quality of life." It is a field of study that has been growing steadily throughout the years as individuals and researchers look for common ground on better well-being. Positive psychology began as a new domain of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association. It is a reaction against past practices, which have tended to focus on mental illness and emphasized maladaptive behavior and negative thinking. It builds on the humanistic movement by Abraham Maslow, Rollo May, James Bugental and Carl Rogers, which encourages an emphasis on happiness, well-being, and positivity, thus creating the foundation for what is now known as positive psychology. Positive psychology focuses on eudaimonia, an Ancient Greek term for "the good life" and the concept for reflection on the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life. Positive psychologists often use the terms subjective well-being and happiness interchangeably. Positive psychologists have suggested a number of factors may contribute to happiness and subjective well-being. For example, social ties with a spouse, family, friends, colleagues, and wider networks; membership in clubs or social organizations; physical exercise, and the practice of meditation. Spirituality can also be considered a factor that leads to increased individual happiness and well-being. Spiritual practice and religious commitment is a topic researchers have been studying as another possible source for increased well-being and an added part of positive psychology. Happiness may rise with increasing financial income, though it may plateau or even fall when no further gains are made or after a certain cut-off amount.
  • 5.9K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Causes of Egg Spoilage and Preventing Egg Spoilage
Eggs are a rich source of protein, minerals, lipids, and vitamins. Eggs are an essential source of bacterial microflora. Controlling antimicrobial resistance and reducing food loss and waste are essential for a sustainable future. To prevent spoilage and to preserve eggs, a variety of techniques, including thermal and non-thermal, are often used. The decontamination methods for egg preservation that have been applied are discussed. In previous studies, the initial contamination of the eggs varied from 2 to 9 log CFU per egg. Either thermal or non-thermal techniques resulted in reduced concentrations of Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium, and Escherichia coli, respectively, on the surface of the egg that ranged 0.62–5.9 log, 1.27–4.9 log, and 0.06–6.39 log, respectively, for the former, and being 1.2–7.8 log, 5.0–7.8 log, and 6.5–6.6 log, respectively, for the latter. Thermal approaches were more effective than the non-thermal approaches. Some of these methods had negative consequences on the egg’s functionality, while combination methods, such as thermoultrasonifcation (ozone-UV radiation or heat-ozone), mitigated these effects.
  • 5.9K
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
List of Intel Core 2 Microprocessors
The Core 2 brand refers to Intel's x86 and x86-64 microprocessors with the Core microarchitecture made for the consumer and business markets (except servers) above Pentium. The Core 2 solo branch covered single-core CPUs for notebook computers, Core 2 Duo – dual-core CPUs for desktop and notebook computers, Core 2 Quad – quad-core CPUs for desktop and notebook computers, and Core 2 Extreme – dual-core and quad-core CPUs for desktop and notebook computers.
  • 5.9K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers
Whether the earliest Church Fathers believed in the Trinity or not is a subject for debate. Some of the evidence used to support an early belief in the Trinity are triadic statements (referring to the Father, Son and Holy Spirit) from the New Testament and the Church Fathers. The view that the Son was 'of the essence of the Father, God of God...very God of very God' was formally ratified at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. The Holy Spirit was included at the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD), where the relationship between the Father, Son and Holy Spirit as one substance (ousia) and three co-equal persons (hypostaseis) was formally ratified.
  • 5.9K
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
People's Party of Canada
The People's Party of Canada (PPC; French: Parti populaire du Canada or simply People's Party) is a federal political party in Canada. The party was formed by Maxime Bernier in September 2018, shortly after his resignation from the Conservative Party of Canada. Bernier, the Member of Parliament for Beauce and a former cabinet minister, was the party's only MP from its founding in 2018 to his defeat in the 2019 Canadian federal election. Bernier had represented the Quebec riding in Parliament from 2006, when he was elected as a Conservative. The party has been referred to as conservative, libertarian, populist,, and classical liberal, while being seen on the right-wing to far-right of the traditional left-right political spectrum. The PPC formed electoral district associations (EDAs) in all of Canada's 338 ridings and ran a full slate of candidates in the 2019 federal election, but no candidate was elected under its banner and Bernier lost his bid for personal re-election in Beauce.
  • 5.9K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Bone Structure, Its Properties, and Bone Healing Mechanism
Bones are categorized into two major groups, namely cortical bones, and cancellous bones. Cortical bones are compact bones and are responsible for providing mechanical strength, structural rigidity, and movement. They account for 80% of the mass of the bones in the human body. Cancellous bones, also known as trabecular bones, are soft, spongy bones and are responsible for providing structural support to the cortical bones, flexibility, and reduction in weight. 
  • 5.9K
  • 21 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Microbial Interactions in Nature
Microorganisms like bacteria, archaea, fungi, microalgae, and viruses mostly form complex interactive networks within the ecosystem rather than existing as single planktonic cells. Interactions among microorganisms occur between the same species, with different species, or even among entirely different genera, families, or even domains. These interactions occur after environmental sensing, followed by converting those signals to molecular and genetic information, including many mechanisms and classes of molecules. Comprehensive studies on microbial interactions disclose key strategies of microbes to colonize and establish in a variety of different environments. Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in microbial interactions is essential to understand the ecological impact of microbes and the development of dysbioses. Furthermore, it might be the key to exploit strategies and specific agents against different facing challenges, such as chronic and infectious diseases, hunger crisis, pollution, and sustainability.
  • 5.9K
  • 18 Jun 2021
  • Page
  • of
  • 2729
Featured Entry Collections
>>

Featured Reprints

>>
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Encyclopedia of Engineering
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography
Academic Video Service
Feedback