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Topic Review
Solar Photovoltaic Systems Faults
This entry provides an overview of common Solar PV system faults.
  • 6.3K
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Climate Change and Russian Agriculture
Russian weather trends such as winter softening and increase in summer heat have a significant but opposite effect on yields. An interesting finding is a significant and mostly positive influence of global climatic variables, such as the CO2 concentration, El Niño and La Niña events on both harvests and yields. Although technological factors are the main drivers of growth in Russian agricultural performance over the past 20 years, we found a strong positive effect on yield and gross harvest only for mineral fertilizers. The influence of the other variables is mixed, which is mainly due to data quality and aggregation errors.
  • 6.3K
  • 24 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Artificial Neural Networks
Artificial Intelligence (AI) researches and builds intelligent software and machines, provides a particular solution to a particular defined complex problem. To carry out these tasks, it uses models and algorithms such as genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, artificial neural networks (ANNs), and hybrid models (two or more of the above). ANNs are flexible to accommodate non-linear and non-physical data; however, they require large multidimensional data set to reduce the risk of extrapolation. ANNs are widely used in different branches of science for their learning ability and adaptability to various settings.
  • 6.3K
  • 12 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Porridge
Porridge (historically also spelled porage, porrige, or parritch) is a food commonly eaten as a breakfast cereal dish, made by boiling ground, crushed or chopped starchy plants—typically grain—in water or milk. It is often cooked or served with added flavorings such as sugar, honey, (dried) fruit or syrup to make a sweet cereal, or it can be mixed with spices or vegetables to make a savoury dish. It is usually served hot in a bowl, depending on its consistency. Oat porridge, or oatmeal, is one of the most common types of porridge. Gruel is a thinner version of porridge.
  • 6.3K
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Lichen as Multipartner Symbiotic Relationships
Lichens have long been considered as composite organisms composed of algae and/or cyanobacteria hosted by a fungus in a mutualistic relationship. Other organisms have been gradually discovered within the lichen thalli, such as multiple algal species, yeasts, or even viruses. Of pivotal relevance is the existence of the lichen microbiome, which is a community of microorganisms that can be found living together on the lichen surface. This community performs a growing number of functions. In this entry, we explore the journey of lichens being considered from a dual partnership to a multi-species symbiotic relationship. 
  • 6.3K
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Electrospinning
Relative to many other nanofiber formation techniques, the electrospinning technique exhibits superior nanofiber formation when considering cost and manufacturing complexity for many situations. Aligned electrospun nanofibers have applications in nanocomposite structures and energy storage devices in addition to applications like air filtration, desalination, tissue engineering, textiles etc. The  specific strength and dielectric constant are important to understand mechanical and dielectric properties of electrospun fibers and tailor these properties in the field of composite and energy applications. 
  • 6.3K
  • 20 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Crocodile
Crocodiles (family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term crocodile is sometimes used even more loosely to include all extant members of the order Crocodilia, which includes the alligators and caimans (family Alligatoridae), the gharial and false gharial (family Gavialidae) among other extinct taxa. Although they appear similar, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate biological families. The gharial, with its narrow snout, is easier to distinguish, while morphological differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators. The most obvious external differences are visible in the head, with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators and caimans. Another obvious trait is that the upper and lower jaws of the crocodiles are the same width, and the teeth in the lower jaw fall along the edge or outside the upper jaw when the mouth is closed; therefore, all teeth are visible, unlike an alligator, which possesses in the upper jaw small depressions into which the lower teeth fit. Also, when the crocodile's mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the protruding tooth is the most reliable feature to define the species' family. Crocodiles have more webbing on the toes of the hind feet and can better tolerate saltwater due to specialized salt glands for filtering out salt, which are present, but non-functioning, in alligators. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their much higher levels of aggression. Crocodile size, morphology, behaviour and ecology differ somewhat among species. However, they have many similarities in these areas as well. All crocodiles are semiaquatic and tend to congregate in freshwater habitats such as rivers, lakes, wetlands and sometimes in brackish water and saltwater. They are carnivorous animals, feeding mostly on vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, birds and mammals, and sometimes on invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans, depending on species and age. All crocodiles are tropical species that, unlike alligators, are very sensitive to cold. They separated from other crocodilians during the Eocene epoch, about 55 million years ago. Many species are at the risk of extinction, some being classified as critically endangered.
  • 6.3K
  • 21 Oct 2024
Topic Review
KIC 8462852
KIC 8462852 (also Tabby's Star or Boyajian's Star) is an F-type main-sequence star located in the constellation Cygnus approximately 1,470 light-years (450 pc) from Earth. Unusual light fluctuations of the star, including up to a 22% dimming in brightness, were discovered by citizen scientists as part of the Planet Hunters project. In September 2015, astronomers and citizen scientists associated with the project posted a preprint of an article describing the data and possible interpretations. The discovery was made from data collected by the Kepler space telescope, which observes changes in the brightness of distant stars to detect exoplanets. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the star's large irregular changes in brightness as measured by its light curve, but none to date fully explain all aspects of the curve. One explanation is that an "uneven ring of dust" orbits KIC 8462852. In another explanation, the star's luminosity is modulated by changes in the efficiency of heat transport to its photosphere, so no external obscuration is required. A third hypothesis, based on a lack of observed infrared light, posits a swarm of cold, dusty comet fragments in a highly eccentric orbit, however, the notion that disturbed comets from such a cloud could exist in high enough numbers to obscure 22% of the star's observed luminosity has been doubted. Another hypothesis is that a large number of small masses in "tight formation" are orbiting the star. Furthermore, spectroscopic study of the system has found no evidence for coalescing material or hot close-in dust or circumstellar matter from an evaporating or exploding planet within a few astronomical units of the mature central star. It has also been hypothesized that the changes in brightness could be signs of activity associated with intelligent extraterrestrial life constructing a Dyson swarm. The scientists involved are very skeptical, however, with others describing it as implausible. KIC 8462852 is not the only star that has large irregular dimmings, but all other such stars are young stellar objects called YSO dippers, which have different dimming patterns. An example of such an object is EPIC 204278916. New light fluctuation events of KIC 8462852 began in the middle of May 2017. Except for a period between late-December 2017 and mid-February 2018 when the star was obscured by the Sun, the fluctuations have continued (As of July 2018).
  • 6.3K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Blended Learning
Blended learning is an approach to education that combines online educational materials and opportunities for interaction online with traditional place-based classroom methods. It requires the physical presence of both teacher and student, with some elements of student control over time, place, path, or pace. While students still attend "brick-and-mortar" schools with a teacher present, face-to-face classroom practices are combined with computer-mediated activities regarding content and delivery. Blended learning is also used in professional development and training settings. Since blended learning is highly context-dependent, a universal conception of it is difficult. Some reports have claimed that a lack of consensus on a hard definition of blended learning has led to difficulties in research on its effectiveness. A well-cited 2013 study broadly defined blended learning as a mixture of online and in-person delivery where the online portion effectively replaces some of the face-to-face contact time rather than supplementing it. Additionally, a 2015 meta-analysis that historically looked back at a comprehensive review of evidence-based research studies around blended learning, found commonalities in defining that blended learning was "considered a combination of traditional f2f [face to face] modes of instruction with online modes of learning, drawing on technology-mediated instruction, where all participants in the learning process are separated by distance some of the time." This report also found that all of these evidence-based studies concluded that student achievement was higher in blended learning experiences when compared to either fully online or fully face-to-face learning experiences. "Blended learning" is sometimes used in the same breath as "personalized learning" and differentiated instruction.
  • 6.3K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
CO2 Separation Techniques
Energy plants, industries, as well as other sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) result in global warming and affect the planet. CO2 is separated from flue gas during combustion using a variety of advanced separation techniques. There are several techniques involved, such as absorption, adsorption, chemical looping, membrane separation, and cryogenics.
  • 6.3K
  • 13 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Sensors for Emotion Recognition
The rapid development of sensors and information technology has made it possible for machines to recognize and analyze human emotions. Emotion recognition is an important research direction in various fields. Human emotions have many manifestations. Therefore, emotion recognition can be realized by analyzing facial expressions, speech, behavior, or physiological signals. These signals are collected by different sensors. Correct recognition of human emotions can promote the development of affective computing. 
  • 6.3K
  • 13 Mar 2023
Topic Review
BMW 7 Series (E65)
The BMW E65 is the fourth generation of the BMW 7 Series range of full-size luxury sedans, and was produced from 2001 to 2008. The variants of the range are: The E65 was the first BMW vehicle to include the iDrive infotainment system, the new brand design language, active anti-roll bars, a 6-speed automatic transmission, an electronic smart Key (dispensing with the traditional metallic key), and night vision. The 760i model also utilised the world's first production V12 engine to use direct injection. In late 2008, the E65 7 Series was replaced by the 7 Series (F01).
  • 6.3K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nutritional Value of Caulerpa lentillifera
Caulerpa lentillifera is a type of green seaweed widely consumed as a fresh vegetable, specifically in Southeast Asia. Interestingly, this green seaweed has recently gained popularity in the food sector. 
  • 6.3K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Binary Fission
Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how organisms, bodies, populations, or species split into discrete parts. The fission may be binary fission, in which a single organism produces two parts, or multiple fission, in which a single entity produces multiple parts.
  • 6.3K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Persuasive Technology
Persuasive technology is broadly defined as technology that is designed to change attitudes or behaviors of the users through persuasion and social influence, but not necessarily through coercion. Such technologies are regularly used in sales, diplomacy, politics, religion, military training, public health, and management, and may potentially be used in any area of human-human or human-computer interaction. Most self-identified persuasive technology research focuses on interactive, computational technologies, including desktop computers, Internet services, video games, and mobile devices, but this incorporates and builds on the results, theories, and methods of experimental psychology, rhetoric, and human-computer interaction. The design of persuasive technologies can be seen as a particular case of design with intent.
  • 6.3K
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Problematic Smartphone Use
Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is defined as the inability to control the time spent on smartphones, which has long-term negative impacts on daily life. The use-and-gratifications approach is applied to smartphones and describes the extent to which users devote themselves to smartphones to obtain gratifications. These gratifications can be represented in the types of use (process, social, and habitual).
  • 6.3K
  • 05 May 2022
Topic Review
Comparison of Chernobyl and Other Radioactivity Releases
This article compares the radioactivity release and decay from the Chernobyl disaster with various other events which involved a release of uncontrolled radioactivity.
  • 6.3K
  • 07 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis (from Greek: Ancient Greek: + Ancient Greek:) is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques that deal in part with the unconscious mind, and which together form a method of treatment for mental disorders. The discipline was established in the early 1890s by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who retained the term psychoanalysis for his own school of thought. Freud's work stems partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others. Psychoanalysis was later developed in different directions, mostly by students of Freud, such as Alfred Adler and his collaborator, Carl Gustav Jung, as well as by neo-Freudian thinkers, such as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Psychoanalysis is a controversial discipline, and its effectiveness as a treatment has been contested. It has been largely replaced by the similar but broader psychodynamic psychotherapy in the mid-20th century. although it retains a salient influence within psychiatry. Psychoanalytic concepts are also widely used outside the therapeutic arena, in areas such as psychoanalytic literary criticism, as well as in the analysis of film, fairy tales, philosophical perspectives as Freudo-Marxism and other cultural phenomena.
  • 6.3K
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition
In 2015, a deep residual network (ResNet) was proposed for image recognition. It is a type of convolutional neural network (CNN) where the input from the previous layer is added to the output of the current layer. Deep Residual Networks have recently been shown to significantly improve the performance of neural networks trained on ImageNet, with results beating all previous methods on this dataset by large margins in the image classification task. 
  • 6.3K
  • 22 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Iranian Subsidy Reform Plan
The economy of Iran includes a lot of subsidies. The Iranian targeted subsidy plan (Persian: طرح هدفمندسازی یارانه‌ها‎), also known as the subsidy reform plan, was passed by the Iranian Parliament in 2010. The government described the subsidy plan as the "biggest surgery" to the nation's economy in half a century and "one of the most important undertakings in Iran's recent economic history". The goal of the subsidy reform plan is to replace subsidies on food and energy (80% of total) with targeted social assistance, in accordance with a Five Year Economic Development Plan and a move towards free market prices in a 5-year period. The subsidy reform plan is the most important part of a broader Iranian economic reform plan. According to the government, approximately $100 billion per year is spent on subsidizing energy prices ($45 billion for the prices of fuel alone) and many consumable goods including bread, sugar, rice, cooking oil and medicine. However, some experts believe direct subsidies are about $30 billion, depending on oil prices. The subsidy system has been inherited from the Iran–Iraq War era but was never abolished. Iran is one of the largest gasoline consumers in the world, ranking second behind the United States in consumption per car. The government subsidy reform has been years in the making, for reasons which are unclear. Iran's Supreme Leader has backed the government’s subsidy reform plan.
  • 6.3K
  • 13 Oct 2022
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