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Topic Review
Interleukin-6 and Macular Edema
The role of IL-6 in the development of macular edema has been well elucidated. IL-6 is produced by multiple cells of the innate immune system and leads to a higher likelihood of developing autoimmune inflammatory diseases, such as non-infectious uveitis, through a variety of mechanisms. These include increasing the helper T-cell population over the regulatory T-cell population and leading to the increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha.
  • 505
  • 09 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Olive Pomace and Ocular Surface
Oxidative- and inflammatory-related ocular surface diseases have high prevalence and are an emerging issue in ophthalmology. Olive pomace (OP) is the olive oil’s industry main by-product, and is potentially environmentally hazardous. Nevertheless, it contains phenolic compounds with important bioactivities, like oleuropein (OL) and hydroxytyrosol (HT). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of four OP extracts (CONV, OPT(1–3)), pure OL and HT, and mixtures thereof were screened on human corneal (HCE) and conjunctival epithelial (IM-ConjEpi) cells. CONV was conventionally extracted, while OPT(1–3) were produced by pressurized liquid extraction. Thanks to their improved activity, CONV and OPT3 (HT-enriched) were selected for dose-dependent studies. Cells were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-α or ultraviolet-B radiation, measuring interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-17A as well as interferon γ-induced protein [IP]-10 secretion or intracellular ROS production, respectively. On HCE, both extracts and HT inhibited the secretion of most measured ILs, demonstrating a strong anti-inflammatory effect; while in IM-ConjEpi, all samples decreased IP-10 secretion. Moreover, HT, OL, and both extracts showed strong dose-dependent antioxidant activity in both cell lines. Compared with CONV, OPT3 was active at lower concentrations, demonstrating that intensified extraction techniques are selective towards targeted biomarkers. Hence, a high-value application as potential ocular surface therapy was proposed for the OP valorization.
  • 504
  • 02 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Sjögren’s Syndrome Dry Eye
Sjögren’s syndrome is a chronic and insidious auto-immune disease characterized by lymphocyte infiltration of exocrine glands. The patients typically present with ocular surface diseases related to dry eye and other systemic manifestations. However, due to the high prevalence of dry eye disease and the lack of objective and clinically reliable diagnostic tools, discriminating Sjögren’s syndrome dry eye (SSDE) from non-Sjögren’s syndrome dry eye (NSSDE) remains a challenge for clinicians. Diagnosing Sjögren’s syndrome is important to improve the quality of life of patients through timely referral for systemic workups, as SS is associated with serious systemic complications such as lymphoma and other autoimmune diseases. 
  • 504
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Telehealth and Screening in Glaucoma
Telehealth has become a viable option for glaucoma screening and glaucoma monitoring due to advances in technology. The ability to measure intraocular pressure without an anesthetic and to take optic nerve photographs without pharmacologic pupillary dilation using portable equipment have allowed glaucoma screening programs to generate enough data for assessment. At home, patients can perform visual acuity testing, web-based visual field testing, rebound tonometry, and video visits with the physician to monitor for glaucomatous progression.
  • 504
  • 10 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Gene Therapy for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex and multifactorial disease and a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly population. The anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy has revolutionized the management and prognosis of neovascular AMD (nAMD) and is currently the standard of care for this disease. However, patients are required to receive repeated injections, imposing substantial social and economic burdens. The implementation of gene therapy methods to achieve sustained delivery of various therapeutic proteins holds the promise of a single treatment that could ameliorate the treatment challenges associated with chronic intravitreal therapy, and potentially improve visual outcomes. Several early-phase trials are currently underway, evaluating the safety and efficacy of gene therapy for nAMD; however, areas of controversy persist, including the therapeutic target, route of administration, and potential safety issues.
  • 503
  • 18 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Incidence and Risk Factors of Bilateral Herpetic Keratitis
Herpetic keratitis is the result of a corneal infection with Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) and it is recognized as a leading cause of corneal blindness worldwide. Bilateral HSV keratitis is a rare clinical manifestation and consists of simultaneously occurring infection in both eyes.
  • 500
  • 21 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Diabetic Retinopathy and Hyperglycaemia
Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become a vital societal problem as epidemiological studies demonstrate the increasing incidence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Lesions observed in the retina in the course of diabetes, referred to as diabetic retinopathy (DR), are caused by vascular abnormalities and are ischemic in nature. Vascular lesions in diabetes pertain to small vessels (microangiopathy) and involve precapillary arterioles, capillaries and small veins. Pericyte loss, thickening of the basement membrane, and damage and proliferation of endothelial cells are observed. Endothelial cells (monolayer squamous epithelium) form the smooth internal vascular lining indispensable for normal blood flow. Breaking its continuity initiates blood coagulation at that site.
  • 497
  • 01 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Galactosemic Cataract
A galactosemic cataract is cataract which is associated with the consequences of galactosemia.
  • 490
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Omics-Based Biomarker Discovery in Retinal Vascular Diseases
Retinal vascular disease is a highly prevalent vision-threatening ocular disease in the global population; however, its exact mechanism remains unclear. The expansion of omics technologies has revolutionized a new medical research methodology that combines multiple omics data derived from the same patients to generate multi-dimensional and multi-evidence-supported holistic inferences, providing unprecedented opportunities to elucidate the information flow of complex multi-factorial diseases. Omics data from eye biopsies can identify the molecular mechanisms of retinal vascular diseases in addition to the associated diagnostic prognostic and predictive biomarkers.
  • 490
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein in the Eye
Activity-dependent protein (ADNP) is a neuroprotective protein of 123.56 kDa molecular weight, widely expressed throughout the body, including the eye. Morphological and proteomic studies showed that ADNP is distributed in the retina and cornea of different species, including humans. ADNP was originally discovered as an astroglial secreted protein, able to modulate the neurotrophic/neuroprotective activity of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), as well as of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP). PACAP and VIP perform their effects through the activation of G protein-coupled receptors, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor type 1 (PAC1R), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 1 (VPAC1R), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 2 (VPAC2R). In particular, the PAC1 receptor shows eight different splice variants (Null, Hip, Hop1, Hop2, Hiphop1, Hiphop2, short, and very short isoforms), whose activation by the binding to PACAP/VIP activates phospholipase C (PLC) and adenylate cyclase (AC), or calcium-regulated mechanisms. It is worth noting that a subpicomolar concentration of PACAP stimulated ADNP expression mainly through the MAPK signaling pathway and cAMP-dependent protein kinase activation. Both VIP and PACAP showed important protective effects against different ocular diseases. 
  • 484
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Ru-106 Brachytherapy
Ruthenium-106 brachytherapy emits beta radiation (Ru-106 gives off radiation in the form of high energy electrons called beta particles as it decays into rhodium-106 and then into palladium-106, which isn't radioactive) and is used for tumors up to 5 mm in height due to the limited range of radiation penetration, but in some centers, it is used to treat thicker tumors. Therefore, ruthenium is intended for the treatment of small and some medium-sized tumors.
  • 483
  • 10 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Blue Light and Eye Damage
Personal digital devices, emitting high-energy light, namely in the blue wavelength, have raised concerns about possible harmful effects on users’ eyes. Scientific research history has shown a relationship between exposure to blue light and changes in ocular structures.
  • 480
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
Cell-Based Therapies for Glaucoma
Glaucoma is clinically characterized by elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) that leads to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and optic nerve damage, and eventually blindness if left untreated. Even in normal pressure glaucoma patients, a reduction of IOP is currently the only effective way to prevent blindness, by either increasing aqueous humor outflow or decreasing aqueous humor production. The trabecular meshwork (TM) and the adjacent Schlemm’s canal inner wall play a key role in regulating IOP by providing resistance when aqueous humor drains through the tissue.
  • 477
  • 23 Sep 2021
Topic Review
CD36 with Eye Diseases and Pathological Changes
Cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) belongs to the B2 receptors of the scavenger receptor class B family, which is comprised of single-chain secondary transmembrane glycoproteins. It is present in a variety of cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, microvascular endothelial cells, adipocytes, hepatocytes, platelets, skeletal muscle cells, kidney cells, cardiomyocytes, taste bud cells, and a variety of other cell types. CD36 can be localized on the cell surface, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and endosomes, playing a role in lipid accumulation, oxidative stress injury, apoptosis, and inflammatory signaling. CD36 is expressed in a variety of ocular cells, including retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), retinal microvascular endothelial cells, retinal ganglion cells (RGC), Müller cells, and photoreceptor cells, playing an important role in eye diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and glaucoma.
  • 476
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Amino Acids Metabolism in Retinopathy
The characterization of amino acids in diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) by metabolomics from clinical and basic research perspectives has been discussed. This entry delineates the significance of amino acid metabolism in retinopathy and provides possible direction to discover therapeutic targets for retinopathy.
  • 475
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Adipose Stem Cells in Modern-Day Ophthalmology
Stem cells (SCs) have evolved as an interesting and viable factor in ophthalmologic patient care in the past decades. SCs have been classified as either embryonic, mesenchymal, tissue-specific, or induced pluripotent cells. Multiple novel management techniques and clinical trials have been established to date. While available publications are predominantly animal-model-based, significant material is derived from human studies and case-selected scenarios. This possibility of explanting cells from viable tissue to regenerate/repair damaged tissue points to an exciting future of therapeutic options in all fields of medicine, and ophthalmology is surely not left out. Adipose tissue obtained from lipo-aspirates has been shown to produce mesenchymal SCs that are potentially useful in different body parts, including the oculo-visual system.
  • 475
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Posterior Capsule Opacification: Experimental Review
Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) is the most common complication of cataract surgery. It causes a gradual deterioration of visual acuity, which would otherwise improve after a successful procedure. Despite recent advances in ophthalmology, this complication has not been eradicated, and the incidence of PCO can be as high as 10%.
  • 475
  • 06 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography in Neurological and Vessel Diseases
For glaucoma evaluation, several studies have suggested that in the early stages, ganglion cell complex (GCC) analysis, especially the thickness of the infero and that of the inferotemporal GCC layers, is a more sensitive examination than circumpapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL). In the moderate stages of glaucoma, inferior pRNFL thinning is better correlated with the disease than in advanced cases. Another strategy for glaucoma detection is to find any asymmetry of the ganglion cell–inner plexiform layers (GCIPL) between the two macular hemifields, because this finding is a valuable indicator for preperimetric glaucoma, better than the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness or the absolute thickness parameters of GCIPL. In preperimetric and suspected glaucoma, GCC and pRNFL have better specificity and are superior to the visual field. In advanced stages, pRNFL and later, GCC reach the floor effect. 
  • 475
  • 08 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Retromode Imaging in Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Retromode is a relatively new retinal-imaging technique that is based on the transillumination principle and is obtained with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope that uses light in the infrared spectrum. The laser light penetrates into the deep retinal layers and the choroid. Retromode images are captured with a laterally displaced aperture, and the detector captures only the scattered light. The result is a high-contrast pseudo-three-dimensional image. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a disabling retinal disease. AMD is characterized in its early stage by small and intermediate drusen formation, while the signs of intermediate AMD are large drusen and/or pigmentary abnormalities. Late AMD has two forms, geographic atrophy, which is the advanced form of dry AMD, and wet AMD. Most of the lesions of AMD are located in the outer layers of the retina. This new imaging method can provide a glimpse of the deep retinal layers’ topographic changes in a non-invasive, fast, and effective way that can match the other imaging tools available. 
  • 473
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Glaucoma Following Cataract Surgery
Glaucoma is a common and sight-threatening complication of pediatric cataract surgery Reported incidence varies due to variability in study designs and length of follow-up.. Consistent and repli-cable risk factors for developing glaucoma following cataract surgery (GFCS) are early age at the time of surgery, microcornea, and additional surgical interventions. 
  • 471
  • 02 Mar 2021
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