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Topic Review
Uveal Melanoma Tumors
Uveal melanoma (UM), a rare form of melanoma, is the most common intraocular cancer in adults.
  • 929
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Ophthalmology Clinics in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia, which is a growing public health concern. Although there is no curative treatment for established AD, early recognition and modification of the known risk factors can reduce both severity and the rate of progression.  Currently, an early diagnosis of AD is rarely achieved, as there is no screening for AD. The cognitive decline in AD is gradual and often goes unnoticed by patients and caregivers, resulting in patients presenting at later stages of the disease.  Primary care physicians (general practitioners in the UK) can administer a battery of tests for patients presenting with memory problems and cognitive impairment, however final diagnosis of AD is usually made by specialised tertiary level clinics.  Recent studies suggest that in AD, visuospatial difficulties develop prior to the development of memory problems and screening for visuospatial difficulties may offer a tool to screen for early stage AD. AD and cataracts share common risk and predisposing factors, and the stage of cataract presentation for intervention has shifted dramatically with early cataract referral and surgical intervention becoming the norm. This presentation offers an ideal opportunity to administer a screening test for AD, and visuospatial tools can be administered at post-operative visits by eye clinics.  Abnormal findings can be communicated to primary care physicians for further follow up and assessment, or possible interventions which modify risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension and obesity can be undertaken.
  • 924
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Amino Acids Metabolism in Retinopathy
The characterization of amino acids in diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) by metabolomics from clinical and basic research perspectives has been discussed. This entry delineates the significance of amino acid metabolism in retinopathy and provides possible direction to discover therapeutic targets for retinopathy.
  • 923
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Deep Learning in Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) provides depth-resolved visualization of the retinal microvasculature without intravenous dye injection. It facilitates investigations of various retinal vascular diseases and glaucoma by assessment of qualitative and quantitative microvascular changes in the different retinal layers and radial peripapillary layer non-invasively, individually, and efficiently. Deep learning (DL), a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) based on deep neural networks, has been applied in OCT-A image analysis and achieved good performance for different tasks, such as image quality control, segmentation, and classification. DL technologies have further facilitated the potential implementation of OCT-A in eye clinics in an automated and efficient manner and enhanced its clinical values for detecting and evaluating various vascular retinopathies.
  • 921
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Overcoming Antimicrobial Resistance in Endophthalmitis
Endophthalmitis is a rare but vision-threatening infection characterized by marked inflammation of intraocular fluids and tissues, uncommonly seen following surgery and intravitreal injection. Antimicrobials are used worldwide in the prophylaxis and treatment of bacterial and fungal infections of the eye and are standard treatment in the preoperative and postoperative care of surgical patients. However, antimicrobials are reported to be overprescribed in many parts of the world, which contributes to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR complicates the prophylaxis and treatment of endophthalmitis. 
  • 921
  • 18 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress in Retinal Dystrophies
Retinal cell survival requires an equilibrium between oxygen, reactive oxygen species, and antioxidant molecules that counteract oxidative stress damage. Oxidative stress alters cell homeostasis and elicits a protective cell response, which is most relevant in photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells, neurons with a high metabolic rate that are continuously subject to light/oxidative stress insults. Any alteration on the retinal cell mechanisms to respond to oxidative stress injuries results in cell damage and apoptosis. Therefore, antioxidants agents, modulators of gene expression and inducers of cytoprotective signaling pathways may be used as potential therapies to ameliorate phenotypic symptoms in multifactorial and rare retinal dystrophies associated to oxidative stress injuries.
  • 915
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Nano-Based DDS for Anterior Segment Diseases
The eye is a delicate and complex organ protected by anatomical barriers that limit the bioavailability and residence time of topically administered drugs. Polymeric nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) have been developed to address this challenge and improve therapeutic outcomes. Biodegradable polymers are often used in these DDS to minimize adverse effects and control the release of different loaded drugs.
  • 909
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Basics of Ocular Immunology
Ocular infectious diseases are an important cause of potentially preventable vision loss and blindness. Bacteria and viruses represent the more common causes of ocular infections worldwide and can affect nearly any anatomical part of the eye.
  • 903
  • 18 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Research Trends and Hotspots of Retinal OCT
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a widely used technology for high-resolution and cross-sectional imaging of tissues by measuring backscattered light. The emergence of optical coherence tomography (OCT) has sparked great interest in retinal research.
  • 902
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Role of Microaneurysms in Diabetic Macular Edema
Microaneurysms (MAs), a characteristic feature in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular edema (DME), can be detected by fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography. These instrumental analyses demonstrated a geographic and functional association between MA and ischemic areas. MA turnover, the production and loss of MA, reflects the activity of DME and DR. Several cytokines are involved in the pathogenesis of MAs, which is characterized by pericyte loss and endothelial cell proliferation in a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-dependent or -independent manner. Ischemia and MAs localized in the deep retinal layers are characteristic of refractory DME cases. Even in the current anti-VEGF era, laser photocoagulation targeting MAs in the focal residual edema is still an effective therapeutic tool, but it is necessary to be creative in accurately identifying the location of MAs and performing highly precise and minimally invasive coagulation. MAs play a distinctive and important role in the pathogenesis of the onset, progression of DR and DME, and response to anti-VEGF treatment. Further research on MA is significant not only for understanding the pathogenesis of DME but also for improving the effectiveness of treatment.
  • 899
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Uveal Melanomas
Traditionally, it has been thought that metastatic spread in uveal melanoma (UM) and dissemination occurs prior to presentation and that treatment of the primary tumor does not change outcome. However, it seems as though small UM tumours can not only be lethal with high risk monosomy 3 mutations, treated at an earlier time point at a smaller stage seems to improve mortality outcomes. 
  • 898
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Nutritional and Metabolic Imbalance in Keratoconus
Keratoconus (KC) is a progressive corneal degeneration characterized by structural changes consisting of progressive thinning and steepening of the cornea.
  • 897
  • 08 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Myopia Control in Children
The growing incidence of myopia worldwide justifies the search for efficient methods of myopia prevention. Numerous pharmacological, optical, and lifestyle measures have already been utilized, but there remains a need to explore more practical and predictable methods for myopia control.
  • 894
  • 26 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Cannabineyed
The word cannabineyed refers to endocannabinoid system (ECS) physiology, dysregulation and modulation in the context of ocular and periocular tissues and structures. It derives by placing the word eye into the original one, cannabinoid. Specifically, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex regulatory system, highly conserved among vertebrates. It has been widely described in nearly all human tissues. In the eye, the ECS expression has been demonstrated both in the anterior and in the posterior segment. In this context, the ECS is believed to play a pivotal role in the modulation of the local inflammatory state as well as in the regulation of tissue repair and fibrosis, neo-angiogenesis, pain perception, intraocular pressure (IOP) control and neuroprotection.
  • 892
  • 12 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Advancements in Glaucoma Diagnosis
The progress of artificial intelligence algorithms in digital image processing and automatic diagnosis studies of the eye disease glaucoma has been growing and presenting essential advances to guarantee better clinical care for the population.
  • 892
  • 14 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Cell Therapy, Optogenetics and Exosomes for Retinitis Pigmentosa
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a hereditary disease that causes the gradual degeneration of the photoreceptor cells in the retina, starting with the rods, leading to a progressive loss of vision over time. RP is the most prevalent form of inherited retinal dystrophy, affecting over 1.5 million individuals worldwide and significantly impacting both patients and society. RP is a primary cause of visual disability and blindness in people under 60 years old, and common symptoms include nyctalopia and gradual peripheral vision loss. If left untreated, RP can ultimately lead to complete blindness.
  • 886
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells in Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) causes vision loss in the elderly population. Dry AMD leads to the formation of Drusen, while wet AMD is characterized by cell proliferation and choroidal angiogenesis. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) plays a key role in AMD pathogenesis. In particular, helioreceptor renewal depends on outer segment phagocytosis of RPE cells, while RPE autophagy can protect cells from oxidative stress damage.
  • 886
  • 21 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Silicone Oil in Surgical Management of Endophthalmitis
Endophthalmitis represents one of the biggest diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in modern ophthalmology. It threatens all forms of intraocular surgery from intravitreal injections to corneal transplants and vitrectomies and it is discussed on all surgical consent forms. Silicone oil reduces the risk of postoperative retinal detachment, especially in case of undetected retinal breaks, produces compartmentalization of the eye, may lead to early visual recovery, allows laser photocoagulation, prevents severe postoperative hypotony and has antimicrobic activity due to an inhibitory effect for several species of pathogens. 
  • 882
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Corneal Transplantation in the Past Decade
The cornea is a transparent avascular structure located in the front of the eye that refracts light entering the eyes and also serves as a barrier between the outside world and the internal contents of the eye. Like every other body part, the cornea may suffer insult from trauma, infection, and inflammation. In the case of trauma, a prior infection that left a scar, or conditions such as keratoconus that warrant the removal of all or part of the cornea (keratoplasty), it is important to use healthy donor corneal tissues and cells that can replace the damaged cornea. The types of cornea transplant techniques employed currently include penetrating keratoplasty, endothelial keratoplasty (EK), and artificial cornea transplant. Postoperative failure acutely or after years can result after a cornea transplant and may require a repeat transplant. This research briefly examines the various types of corneal transplant methodologies, indications, contraindications, presurgical protocols, sources of cornea transplant material, wound healing after surgery complications, co-morbidities, and the effect of COVID-19 in corneal transplant surgery.
  • 872
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography in Neurological and Vessel Diseases
For glaucoma evaluation, several studies have suggested that in the early stages, ganglion cell complex (GCC) analysis, especially the thickness of the infero and that of the inferotemporal GCC layers, is a more sensitive examination than circumpapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL). In the moderate stages of glaucoma, inferior pRNFL thinning is better correlated with the disease than in advanced cases. Another strategy for glaucoma detection is to find any asymmetry of the ganglion cell–inner plexiform layers (GCIPL) between the two macular hemifields, because this finding is a valuable indicator for preperimetric glaucoma, better than the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness or the absolute thickness parameters of GCIPL. In preperimetric and suspected glaucoma, GCC and pRNFL have better specificity and are superior to the visual field. In advanced stages, pRNFL and later, GCC reach the floor effect. 
  • 871
  • 08 Feb 2023
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