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Topic Review
Neuroendocrine and Aggressive-Variant Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer may in some cases exhibit microscopic and molecular characteristics of a distinct subtype of disease which is referred to as neuroendocrine differentiation. This entity is rarely found in patients initially diagnosed with metastatic disease and most commonly occurs after treatment of prostate cancer in advanced stages with hormonal agents. This specific presentation of the disease is not effectively targeted by the hormonal therapies used in prostate cancer and exhibits an aggressive clinical course. Interestingly, some tumors may have molecular and clinical characteristics of a neuroendocrine tumor subtype, without however exhibiting the respective histomorphologic features. This aggressive-variant prostate cancer (AVPC) subtype is sensitive to platinum-based chemotherapy, without, however, an impressive long-term response. 
  • 827
  • 13 Jan 2021
Topic Review
HGG in Patients with LFS
Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is a rare high-penetrance and autosomal-dominant pathological condition caused by the germline mutation of the TP53 gene, predisposing to the development of tumors from pediatric age. High-grade glioma (HGG) is a common tumor in children.
  • 827
  • 10 May 2021
Topic Review
Long-Term Management of Advanced Basal Cell Carcinoma
The first-line therapy for locally advanced basal cell carcinoma (laBCC) is Hedgehog pathway inhibitors (HHIs), as they achieve good efficacy and duration of response. However, toxicity in the course of long-term treatment may lead to a decrease in the quality of life, and consequently to interruption or even discontinuation of therapy. As HHI therapy is a balancing act between effectiveness, adverse events, quality of life, and adherence, numerous successful treatment strategies have evolved, such as dose reduction and dose interruptions with on-off treatment schedules or interruptions with re-challenge after progression. As a small percentage of patients show primary or acquired resistance to HHIs, the inhibition of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) has been approved as a second-line therapy, which may also be accompanied by immune-related toxicities and non-response. Thus, optimization of current treatment schedules, novel agents, and combination strategies are urgently needed for laBCC. 
  • 827
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
EGFR in Cancer
EGFR is one of the most successful pharmacological targets of anti-cancer drugs . Both monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and TKIs demonstrated efficacy and acceptable toxicity in large phase III clinical trials , hence were approved for treatment of lung, colorectal and head/neck cancer (see a list of anti-EGFR and anti-HER2 approved drugs in Table 1). However, despite major therapeutic advances, both primary and acquired resistance to these drugs occur and result in disease recurrence.
  • 826
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Characteristics and General Classification of Gastric Cancer
Gastric tumors have been divided based on their location—cardiac and distal. The former refers to the small paracardial area, while the latter refers to the rest of it. The most popular classification in terms of histology is the Laurén classification, which distinguishes between two types of gastric cancer (GC)—intestinal and diffuse. The first GC subtype is often associated with Helicobacter Pylori and lifestyle, which includes a high intake of table salt and alcohol, a low supply of fruits and vegetables, or smoking. It is estimated that about 15–20% of tumors do not fall under Laurén’s classification and are, therefore, considered intermediate tumors. Clinically, GC can also be divided according to its early or advanced stage. Early gastric cancers refer to small tumors (2–5 cm) that take the form of invasive carcinoma of the gastric mucosa or submucosa. Detection of lesions at their early stage is associated with relatively good survival.
  • 826
  • 03 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Hyperthermia to Treat Cancer in Low-Middle-Income Group Countries
Loco-regional hyperthermia at 40–44 °C is a multifaceted therapeutic modality with the distinct triple advantage of being a potent radiosensitizer, a chemosensitizer and an immunomodulator. Risk difference estimates from pairwise meta-analysis have shown that the local tumour control could be improved by 22.3% (p < 0.001), 22.1% (p < 0.001) and 25.5% (p < 0.001) in recurrent breast cancers, locally advanced cervix cancer (LACC) and locally advanced head and neck cancers, respectively by adding hyperthermia to radiotherapy over radiotherapy alone. 
  • 826
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Potential Inhibitor of Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most aggressive brain malignancies with high incidences of developing treatment resistance, resulting in poor prognoses. Glioma stem cell (GSC)-derived exosomes are important players that contribute to GBM tumorigenesis and aggressive properties.
  • 825
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Neoadjuvant Chemoradiotherapy for Locally Advanced Gastric Cancer
Locally advanced gastric cancer (LAGC) has a poor prognosis with surgical resection alone, and neoadjuvant treatment has been recommended to improve surgical and oncological outcomes. Although neoadjuvant chemotherapy has been established to be effective for LAGC, the role of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (NCRT) remains under investigation. Clinical experience and research evidence on esophagogastric junction adenocarcinoma (e.g., cardia gastric cancers) indicate that the likelihood of achieving sustainable local control is higher through NCRT than through resection alone. Furthermore, NCRT also has an acceptable treatment-related toxicity and adverse event profile. In particular, it increases the likelihood of achieving an R0 resection and a pathological complete response (pCR). Moreover, NCRT results in higher overall and recurrence-free survival rates than surgery alone; however, evidence on the survival benefits of NCRT versus neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NCT) remains conflicting. For noncardia gastric cancer, the efficacy of NCRT has mostly been reported in retrospective studies, and several large clinical trials are ongoing. Consequently, NCRT might play a more essential role in unresectable LAGC, for which NCT alone may not be adequate to attain disease control.
  • 825
  • 07 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Circulating MiRNAs and SnoRNAs in Bone Metastasis
Bone is a frequent site of metastasis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are two classes of small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) that posttranscriptionally regulate gene expression in cells. While miRNAs have been largely investigated in the context of bone metastasis, snoRNAs have been poorly studied. However, there is evidence that snoRNAs can give rise to a specific class of miRNAs (called sno-miRNAs), thus sharing features with miRNAs. Another common ground between miRNAs and snoRNAs is the fact that both can circulate in biological fluids, such as blood and lymph. Compared to other RNAs, their small size as well as their interaction with core proteins protect them from a massive degradation both as free and embedded forms, making sncRNAs stable, secreted, circulating molecules. As an embedded form, they are usually within extracellular vesicles (EVs) that derive from cells. EV-embedded and/or circulating microRNAs, mainly, and snoRNAs have been pointed out as important players in bone metastasis by preparing the pre-metastatic niche, directly and indirectly affecting the activities of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, and acting as mediators within cells to support cancer cell growth in bone.
  • 825
  • 06 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Resveratrol Encapsulation as an Anticancer Agent
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic compound that has gained considerable attention in the past decade due to its multifaceted therapeutic potential, including anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. However, its anticancer efficacy is impeded by low water solubility, dose-limiting toxicity, low bioavailability, and rapid hepatic metabolism. To overcome these hurdles, various nanoparticles such as organic and inorganic nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, solid lipid nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, zinc oxide nanoparticles, zeolitic imidazolate frameworks, carbon nanotubes, bioactive glass nanoparticles, and mesoporous nanoparticles were employed to deliver resveratrol, enhancing its water solubility, bioavailability, and efficacy against various types of cancer.
  • 825
  • 22 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma
Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) is a rare, aggressive cancer of the biliary tract. It often presents with locally advanced or metastatic disease, but for patients with early-stage disease, surgical resection with negative margins and portahepatis lymphadenectomy is the standard of care. 
  • 825
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Hypoxia in Lung Cancer Management
Lung cancer represents the first cause of death by cancer worldwide and remains a challenging public health issue. Hypoxia, as a relevant biomarker, has raised high expectations for clinical practice.
  • 825
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Cancer Immunotherapy Targeting Cripto-1
The immune system has been found to be suppressed in cancer patients. Cancer cells are extremely resistant to chemotherapeutic drugs, conventional immunotherapy, or cancer antigen vaccine therapy. Cancer immunotherapy, which is mainly based on immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as those for PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA4, is an effective treatment method. However, no immunotherapeutic target has been found that retains validity in the face of tumor diversity. The transforming growth factor (TGF)-β cytokine family possesses broad biological activity and is involved in the induction and/or transdifferentiation of helper T cells, which are important in immunotherapy. Nodal is a member of the TGF-β family playing important roles in tissue stem cells and cancer stem cells (CSCs), interacting with the co-receptor Cripto-1, as well as with Activin type IB (Alk4) and Activin typeIIreceptors, and maintaining stemness and Notch and Wnt/β-catenin signaling in CSCs. 
  • 824
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Schlafen 11
Schlafen 11 (SLFN11), a member of the mammalian Schlafen family of growth regulatory genes first described in 1998, was recently identified to have a casual association with response to a wide range of DDA, including platinum salts and PARPi. Multiple preclinical models and some clinical studies have demonstrated that high SLFN11 expression levels positively correlate with increased DDA sensitivity in various types of cancers.
  • 824
  • 24 May 2022
Topic Review
Transoral Robotic Surgery: Applications in HNC
Minimally invasive surgery is a growing field in surgical oncology. After acquiring its first Food and Drug Administration approval in 2009 for T1–T2 malignancies of the oral cavity, oropharynx, and larynx, transoral robotic surgery (TORS) has gained popularity thanks to its wristed instruments and magnified three-dimensional view, enhancing surgical comfort in remote-access areas. Its indications are expanding in the treatment of head and neck cancer, i.e., resection of tumors of the larynx, hypopharynx, or parapharyngeal space. Head and neck cancer (HNC) incidence has increased, ranking eighth among the most common cancers worldwide in 2020 with approximately 900,000 cases yearly. Following a similar trend, head and neck surgeons in Australia and New Zealand have a TORS adoption rate of 43.6%. The main indications for TORS in all these countries are lateral oropharyngectomy, base-of-tongue mucosectomy, and surgery for obstructive sleep apnea.
  • 824
  • 30 Mar 2023
Topic Review
GPER in Metastasis and Tumoral Microenvironments
Estrogens and their role in cancer are well-studied, and some cancer types are classified in terms of their response to them. A G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) has been described with relevance in cancer. GPER is a pleiotropic receptor with tissue-specific activity; in normal tissues, its activation is related to correct development and homeostasis, while in cancer cells, it can be pro- or anti-tumorigenic. Also, GPER replaces estrogen responsiveness in estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-lacking cancer cell lines. One of the most outstanding activities of GPER is its role in epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is relevant for metastasis development. In addition, the presence of this receptor in tumor microenvironment cells contributes to the phenotypic plasticity required for the dissemination and maintenance of tumors. These characteristics suggest that GPER could be a promising therapeutic target for regulating cancer development. 
  • 824
  • 07 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Prostate cancer and its Immunotherapy
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second-most common cancer in men worldwide. Treatment options for patients with advanced or aggressive prostate cancer or recurrent disease continue to be of limited success and are rarely curative. Despite the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) in some melanoma, lung, kidney and breast cancers, this approach has been remarkably unsuccessful in PCa. One potentially explanation for this lack of efficacy is the generation of a distinctly immunosuppressive prostate tumor microenvironment (TME) by regulatory T (Treg) cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and type 2 macrophages, all of which have been implicated in a variety of pathological conditions including solid cancers. In PCa, Treg cells and MDSCs are recruited into TME by low-grade chronic inflammatory signals, whereas tissue-resident type 2 macrophages are induced by cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) or prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) produced by Th2 cells. These then drive tumor progression, therapy resistance and the generation of castration (hormone) resistant disease, ultimately conferring a poor prognosis. The biology of MDSCs and Treg cells is highly complex and the development, proliferation, maturation or function can each be pharmacologically mediated to counteract the immunosuppressive effects of these cells.
  • 823
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Ovarian Cancer Stemness
Epithelial ovarian cancer is a highly lethal gynecological malignancy that is characterized by the early development of disseminated metastasis. Though ovarian cancer has been generally considered to preferentially metastasize via direct transcoelomic dissemination instead of the hematogenous route, emerging evidence has indicated that the hematogenous spread of cancer cells plays a larger role in ovarian cancer metastasis than previously thought. Considering the distinctive biology of ovarian cancer, an in-depth understanding of the biological and molecular mechanisms that drive metastasis is critical for developing effective therapeutic strategies against this fatal disease. The recent “cancer stem cell theory” postulates that cancer stem cells are principally responsible for tumor initiation, metastasis, and chemotherapy resistance.
  • 823
  • 30 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Photodynamic Therapy-Mediated Immune Responses in Three-Dimensional Tumor Models
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising non-invasive phototherapeutic approach for cancer therapy that can eliminate local tumor cells and produce systemic antitumor immune responses. Significant efforts have been made in developing strategies to further investigate the immune mechanisms triggered by PDT. The majority of in vitro experimental models still rely on the two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures that do not mimic a three-dimensional (3D) cellular environment in the human body, such as cellular heterogeneity, nutrient gradient, growth mechanisms, and the interaction between cells as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM) and therapeutic resistance to anticancer treatments. In addition, in vivo animal studies are highly expensive and time consuming, which may also show physiological discrepancies between animals and humans. In this sense, there is growing interest in the utilization of 3D tumor models, since they precisely mimic different features of solid tumors. This entry summarizes the characteristics and techniques for 3D tumor model generation. Furthermore, researchers provide an entry of innate and adaptive immune responses induced by PDT in several in vitro and in vivo tumor models. Future perspectives are highlighted for further enhancing PDT immune responses as well as ideal experimental models for antitumor immune response sudies.
  • 823
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Association between Sodium Channels and Gynecological Cancers
Targeted therapy against cancer plays a key role in delivering safer and more efficient treatments. In the last decades, ion channels have been studied for their participation in oncogenic processes because their aberrant expression and/or function have been associated with different types of malignancies, including ovarian, cervical, and endometrial cancer. 
  • 823
  • 13 Jun 2023
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