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Topic Review
Involvement of Interleukin 17 in Renal Cell Carcinoma
IL-17A (traditionally known as IL-17, in the past also termed as CTLA-8) is the first and best characterized member in its family composed of IL-17A, B, C, D, E (also known as Il-25), and F. IL-17 was first discovered in 1993, although it became well-known in 2005 with the finding of a new population of CD4+ Th cells—Th17 that expressed this cytokine. Naive CD4+ T-cells are triggered to differentiate into Th17 in the presence of both TGF-β and Il-6. The differentiation is characterized by the production of IL-17, Il-21, and ROR-yt (transcription factor). The differentiation of Th17 cells also depends on dendritic cells which produce IL-1, IL-6, and IL-23. These molecules preferentially activate STAT-3 which induces transcription factor ROR-yt. ROR-yt is also expressed in the presence of STAT-3 that is activated by Il-6, Il-21, and Il-23. There is also an autocrine generation of Th17 by Il-21 that is derived from these T-cells. Moreover, Il-21 leads to Il-23 receptor expression of Th17 and their susceptibility to Il-23 (produced by dendritic cells) stimulation. This cytokine gives Th17 phenotype stability and helps them with acquiring effector functions.
  • 897
  • 13 Sep 2022
Topic Review
MicroRNAs in Acute Kidney Injury
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical syndrome where a rapid decrease in kidney function and/or urine output is observed, which may result in the imbalance of water, electrolytes and acid base. It is associated with poor prognosis and prolonged hospitalization. miRNAs are non-coding and single-stranded RNAs that silence their target genes in the post-transcriptional process and are involved in a wide range of biological processes.
  • 892
  • 12 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Antiphospholipid Mediated Arteriovenous Fistula Complications
Antiphospholipid antibody (aPL)-persistent positivity is frequent in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Native arteriovenous fistula (AVF) complications such as stenosis and thrombosis are among the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in hemodialysis patients. The association between aPL positivity and AVF thrombosis seems to be well established.
  • 888
  • 10 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Endothelial Dysfunction Due to Diabetes and/or Insulin Resistance
Endothelial dysfunction is not only involved in the development and progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD), but is also associated with the progression of CKD. In patients with type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia induce the development of endothelial dysfunction.
  • 888
  • 13 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive disease, with high morbidity and mortality in adult population. Its incidence is increasing constantly, and approximately 10% of people are affected by some form of CKD, which is associated with almost 1.2 million deaths worldwide. Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of death, followed by infections and malignancies. The gut microbiome is a complex collection of microorganisms with discrete characteristics and activities. Its important role is not restricted to food digestion and metabolism, but extends to the evolution, activation and function of the immune system. Several factors, such as mode of birth, diet, medication, ageing and chronic inflammation, can modify the intestinal microbiota. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) seems to have a direct and unique effect, as increased urea levels result in alteration of the gut microbiome, leading to overproduction of its metabolites. Therefore, potentially noxious microbial uremic toxins, which have predominantly renal clearance, including p-cresyl sulfate, indoxyl sulfate and N-oxide of trimethylamine [Trimethylamine-N-Oxide (TMAO)], accumulate in human’s body, and are responsible not only for the clinical implications of CKD, but also for the progression of renal failure itself. Certain changes in gut microbiome are observed in patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD), either when undergoing hemodialysis or after kidney transplantation.
  • 884
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Botulinum Toxin-A Injection Treat Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome
Pain management of patients with chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS) is challenging, because pain is often refractory to conventional treatments. Botulinum toxin A (BTX-A) may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for these patients. This entry summarizes the literature for prospective studies evaluating the use of BTX-A in the treatment of CPPS. A pooled meta-analysis of the included studies was performed considering only patients underwent BTX-A injection and comparing pain scores evaluated at baseline and at the last available follow up. We found that BTX-A could be an efficacious treatment for some specific CPPS subtypes. Higher level studies are needed to assess the efficacy and safety of BTX-A and provide objective indications for its use in CPPS management.
  • 876
  • 25 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Sperm DNA Fragmentation
Infertility is defined as the inability to conceive after 12 months of regular, unprotected intercourse. Approximately 15% of all couples are affected by infertility, with a male factor being solely responsible in about 20% of couples and contributory in another 30–40%. While a semen analysis is an important initial part of a male fertility evaluation, this test alone cannot differentiate those who are fertile versus infertile (except in cases of azoospermia). Specifically, while a standard semen analysis (SA) provides information regarding the patency of the reproductive tract, sperm production, sperm motility, and sperm viability, it does not provide insight into the functional potential of sperm, including its ability to fertilize an oocyte and contribute to normal embryonic development. Consequently, several tests have been developed to better assess the fertility potential of sperm, including those designed to measure sperm deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragmentation (SDF). While sperm DNA damage is broadly defined as any defect in sperm chromatin structure, SDF relates specifically to the single- or double-stranded breaks (SSBs or DSBs) within DNA strands. 
  • 869
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Management of Localized Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer is the most common malignancy of the urinary system. Nearly 70% of new bladder cancer diagnoses are early stage, and have not yet invaded the muscle layer, whereas the remaining 30% of patients have muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC), including cancer involving the muscularis propria (T2), perivesical tissue (T3) or adjacent pelvic organs/structures (T4). The treatment of MIBC is complex and is based on a multidisciplinary collaboration between surgery, radiotherapy and medical oncology teams.
  • 864
  • 13 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Treatment Paradigms for Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer is a common disease in men and the elderly. Current treatment paradigms include radical resection of the bladder and lymph nodes or transurethral resection, both supported by chemotherapy and/or radiation. New modalities, such as illumination-based therapies are also being translationally pursued.
  • 858
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Vaccinium in Diabetes and Microvascular Complications
Vaccinium L. (Ericaceae) is a genus of plants enriched with polyphenolic compounds in their leaves and fruits. Vaccinium and its extracts have demonstrated good bioactivity in reducing blood glucose, oxidative stress, and inflammation, making them excellent candidates for the management of diabetes and diabetic vascular complications.
  • 852
  • 09 May 2023
Topic Review
Regulation of OAT1 and OAT3 Expression and Activity
Organic anion transporters 1 and 3 (OAT1 and OAT3) play a crucial role in kidney function by regulating the secretion of multiple renally cleared small molecules and toxic metabolic by-products. Assessing the activity of these transporters is essential for drug development purposes as they can significantly impact drug disposition and safety. OAT1 and OAT3 are amongst the most abundant drug transporters expressed in human renal proximal tubules. However, their expression is lost when cells are isolated and cultured in vitro, which is a persistent issue across all human and animal renal proximal tubule cell models, including primary cells and cell lines. Although it is well known that the overall expression of drug transporters is affected in vitro, the underlying reasons for the loss of OAT1 and OAT3 are still not fully understood. 
  • 851
  • 03 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Pelvic Anatomical Changes Caused by Radical Prostatectomy
After radical prostatectomy, the pelvic anatomy is altered such that the postoperative structure differs from the preoperative one, resulting in a variety of complications. In this review, the complications and mechanisms of pelvic anatomical changes associated with radical prostatectomy, as well as countermeasures, are outlined. An analysis of the anatomical mechanisms that cause complications after radical prostatectomy using imaging and other modalities is in progress. In addition, many surgical techniques that ensure the prevention of postoperative complications have been reported, and their usefulness has been evaluated. The preservation of as much periprostatic tissue and periprostatic structures as possible may lead to favorable postoperative functions, as long as the cancer condition permits. 
  • 846
  • 06 Jul 2022
Topic Review
The Immunology and Therapy-Resistant Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in men. Initially, it is androgen-dependent, but it eventually develops into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which is incurable with current androgen receptor signaling target therapy and chemotherapy. Immunotherapy, specifically with immune checkpoint inhibitors, has brought hope for the treatment of this type of prostate cancer. Approaches such as vaccines, adoptive chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells, and immune checkpoint inhibitors have been employed to activate innate and adaptive immune responses to treat prostate cancer, but with limited success. Prostate cancer has a complex tumor microenvironment (TME) in which various immunosuppressive molecules and mechanisms coexist and interact.
  • 841
  • 12 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Androgen Deprivation Therapy
Androgen deprivation therapy alone is commonly performed for metastatic prostate cancer but is generally not recommended for the treatment of high-risk localized or locally advanced prostate cancer.
  • 839
  • 14 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Whole-Person Approach to Urinary Tract Infection
Urobiome dysbiosis, defined as an imbalance in the microbial composition in the microenvironments along the urinary tract, is found in women with uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI). Historically, antibiotics have been used to address UTI. An alternative approach to uncomplicated UTI is warranted as the current paradigm fails to take urobiome dysbiosis into account and contributes to the communal problem of resistance. A whole-person, multi-modal approach that addresses vaginal and urinary tract dysbiosis may be more effective in reducing recurrent UTI.
  • 837
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Markers in Canine Urinary Bladder Cancer
Cancer of the urinary bladder is a neoplasm with considerable importance in veterinary medicine, given its high incidence in several domestic animal species and its life-threatening character. Bladder cancer in companion animals shows a complex and still poorly understood biopathology, and this lack of knowledge has limited therapeutic progress over the years. The development and validation of Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) molecular markers is of great importance for scientists and clinicians alike. Somatic and hereditary BRAF mutations received much attention and can now be detected via multiple types of tests, sometimes in useful combinations with CNA tests. Urine-based tests for detecting BRAF may allow the early detection of post-treatment relapse.
  • 837
  • 10 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Bacillus Calmette–Guerin-Unresponsive Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
Urothelial carcinoma (UC), the sixth most common cancer in Western countries, includes upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) and bladder carcinoma (BC) as the most common cancers among UCs (90–95%). BC is the most common cancer and can be a highly heterogeneous disease, including both non-muscle-invasive (NMIBC) and muscle-invasive (MIBC) forms with different oncologic outcomes. Approximately 80% of new BC diagnoses are classified as NMIBC after the initial transurethral resection of the bladder tumor (TURBt). 
  • 831
  • 18 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Microbiome’s Function in Urinary Bladder Disorders
The beneficial role of the microbiota in preserving the human body’s homeostasis is expected to provide a protective role against infections by forming a physical barrier, and adds to the immune system’s development . However, the detailed physiological impact of the urinary microbiome remains unknown. The changes in the urinary microbiota have been linked to the development of a variety of urinary diseases. These transitions will guide the management of a variety of common urinary diseases associated with changes in the urobiome. 
  • 830
  • 21 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Muscle-Invasive Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma
Upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) is an uncommon disease, only accounting for 5–10% of all urothelial carcinomas. Current clinical practice guidelines encourage a risk-adapted approach to UTUC management, including lymph node dissection (LND) in patients with muscle-invasive or high-risk tumors.
  • 829
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Application of Artificial Intelligence in Nephropathology
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) have triggered a vigorous technological revolution in the medical field. The use of AI algorithms provides cutting-edge guidance for clinical practice, including medical image analysis, smart diagnosis, curative effect evaluation, and prognosis prediction. AI technology is also regarded as a useful tool to improve the diagnostic efficiency and accuracy of renal pathologies.
  • 827
  • 06 Sep 2022
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